Bovine Respiratory Disease in Cattles

Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting the North American beef cattle industry. In the broadest sense, BRD refers to any disease of the upper or lower respiratory tracts. BRD is commonly associated with infections of the lungs causing pneumonia in calves that have recently been weaned or recently arrived at the feedlot (which is why it is often referred to as shipping fever). BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival to the feedlot, but it can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture. 

• Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting the North American beef cattle industry

• It is often referred to as shipping fever

• BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival to the feedlot, but it can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture

• Classical clinical signs of bacterial BRD include:

• fever of over 40°C (>104°F)

• difficulty breathing

• nasal discharge

• varying degrees of depression

• diminished or no appetite (‘off-feed’)

• rapid, shallow breathing

• coughing

• Risk factors

• Environmental factors such as transport, adverse weather, co-mingling, stressful events (ie. dehorning, castration, weaning, auction)

• Prevention

• Precondition calves before marketing

• After arrival at the feedlot, provide a vaccination and general good animal husbandry

• Treatment

• It is best to work with your veterinarian for the appropriate medication and dosage

• Common causes of treatment failure include;

• Pathology of the lesion too far advanced

• Wrong diagnosis

• Simultaneous disease process (e.g.: Overt IBR, Post calving metritis)

• Inadequate dosage

• Overuse or inappropriate use of Ancillary Pharmaceutics  
•  
• Causes: 

BRD is a complex multi-factorial disease, which means that a number of factors must interact to cause the disease. For example, researchers can recover the bacteria and viruses responsible for BRD from the nasal passages of healthy cattle. However, other factors such as the stress from transport, mixing, and weather are needed in order for BRD to develop. There are 3 main categories of factors associated with all diseases, and BRD in particular: 

• Host factors, which refers to the characteristics of an animal that make it more prone to the disease, such as: age, immune status, prior exposure to the pathogens, genetics, etc. environmental factors such as transport, commingling, temperature fluctuations, crowding, ventilation, auction-sourced, etc.  
  Infectious agents or pathogens that are necessary for causing the disease. These can broadly be categorized as viruses, bacteria and parasites: Viruses, including: bovine herpes virus (IBR); bovine parainfluenza virus (PI-3); bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV); bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVD), and bovine coronavirus (BCV). 
  • Bacteria, including Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni and Mycoplasma spp. 
  • Parasites, including lungworm 

• BRD is a complex multi-factorial disease, which means that a number of factors must interact to cause the disease. For example, researchers can recover the bacteria and viruses responsible for BRD from the nasal passages of healthy cattle. However, other factors such as the stress from transport, mixing, and weather are needed in order for BRD to develop. There are 3 main categories of factors associated with all diseases, and BRD in particular

5 diseases that transfer to human from animals

1. Cat scratch disease (CSD):  

Humans can contract this bacterial infection when an infected cat scratches or bites them. A cat can also transfer the disease if it licks an open wound on a human body.

The disease is caused by a bacterium called Bartonella henselae.

Symptoms of CSD, which include fatigue, headaches, swollen lymph nodes, may only appear 14 days after the initial infection and may result in brain disease or inflammation of the optic nerve. 

2. Listeriosis: 

he disease, which recently led to the death of a pregnant South African woman, is mostly contracted through the ingestion of contaminated food. 

The bacterium, Listeria monocytogenes, is occurs in poultry and cattle and can be passed to humans through the ingestion of the meat of an infected animal, or dairy products made from the milk of infected cattle.

Symptoms of the disease range from headaches to confusion and seizures. Listeriosis can be fatal in some cases. 

3.Rabies: 

Perhaps the most commonly known zoonotic disease, rabies causes more than 59 000 worldwide deaths annually. According to the South African National Travel Health Network (SaNTHNet), 95% of deaths as a result of rabies occur in Africa and Asia. 

Rabies can be transferred to humans through the bite of an infected animal. In South Africa, many reported cases are a result of dog bites.

Fever, intolerance of bright light, hyperactivity as well as fear of water are some of the symptoms of rabies.

Paralytic rabies, which accounts for 30% of human rabies cases, can result in gradual paralysis and eventually death. 

4.Query Fever: 

Also called Q fever, this bacterial infection can be passed from animals to humans by simply breathing in dust that has been exposed to the faeces, urine or milk of an infected animal.

Likely to be found in goats, sheep and cattle, severe infection can lead to pneumonia and hepatitis.

Infected humans will experience fever, night sweats or chills, stomach pains, nausea and vomiting. 

5.Plague: 

With most cases of the plague occurring in Africa, this zoonotic disease can be fatal if left untreated.

Often passed to humans through the bite of an infected rodent or fleas, symptoms of the plague begin to show within six days of the onset of infection. Infected people will experience chills, chest pain, body aches as well as a sudden fever. 

If left untreated, the bacteria could enter the bloodstream and cause septicemic plague. The bacteria can also enter the lungs and result in pneumonic plague – which is fatal if not treated early. 

FOX-FORDYCE DISEASE

FOX-FORDYCE DISEASE  

What are the aims of this leaflet?   

This leaflet has been written to help you understand Fox-Fordyce disease. It explains what Fox-Fordyce disease is and why it occurs. This leaflet also details what treatments are available, and where you can get more information.  

What is Fox-Fordyce disease? 

Fox-Fordyce disease is a rare skin disorder affecting the apocrine sweat glands. These are special sweat glands found in the armpits, genital region and breasts that produce a more dense secretion than the normal or ‘eccrine’ sweat glands found elsewhere on the body. Patients with this condition experience itchy bumps on the skin around the hair follicles. 

 What causes Fox-Fordyce disease?  

The disease is believed to be caused by blockage of the apocrine sweat glands. It is not yet known why these glands become blocked. Fox-Fordyce disease commonly occurs under conditions of excess heat, humidity and stress. It can develop in anyone at any age, but most commonly arises in women of child-bearing age. Hormones are therefore believed to play a role, but the exact link has not yet been discovered.  

Is Fox-Fordyce disease hereditary? 

 No, Fox-Fordyce disease is not hereditary.

 What are the symptoms of Fox-Fordyce disease? 

The rash can be very itchy, especially when patients are experiencing high levels of stress or emotion. It is also worsened by heat and friction, and may become troublesome at night.  

What does Fox-Fordyce disease look like? 

Fox-Fordyce disease usually appears as small fluid-filled blisters, skincoloured spots or darkened spots at the base of the hair follicles. 

How is Fox-Fordyce disease diagnosed? 

The diagnosis is normally made “clinically,” from a patient’s history and by examining the appearance of the rash. Occasionally a skin biopsy may be performed to rule out other diseases. A skin biopsy is when a small sample of skin is removed and examined under a microscope.

 Can Fox-Fordyce disease be cured? 

There is no simple cure for Fox-Fordyce disease. In some people, it improves on its own. In the meantime, the symptoms can be controlled to varying extents with treatments.  

How can Fox-Fordyce disease be treated? 

To date large treatment trials have not been carried out. However, available treatment recommendations come from case reports in the research literature and so the advice is limited by the lack of evidence. Treatment is therefore difficult as no single treatment has been shown to be very effective. Topical Therapies (treatment applied to the skin): There are a number of topical therapies. Gels and lotions are better than the more greasy creams and ointments.  

 Topical steroid creams can relieve the itching. However, strong steroids should not be used continuously as they may cause thinning of the skin. Steroids have been injected into problematic areas with some success but again there is a risk of causing skin thinning. 

 Topical calcineurin inhibitors (e.g. tacrolimus or pemecrolimus) can also be used to calm itching and do not cause skin thinning, but can cause a burning sensation. 

 Topical retinoids such as tretinoin or adapalene may be used to try and reduce the rash, but can cause further skin irritation. 

 Topical antibiotics such as clindamycin have also been used successfully.   

 Phototherapy, using an ultraviolet light may be used, but careful consideration is needed as light treatment carries an increased risk of developing skin cancer, particularly with long term use. Oral  

 

Treatments (those taken by mouth):  

 

 Antihistamine tablets can be used to control the itching, especially if it is interrupting sleep. Antihistamines are normally well tolerated with few side effects, but may cause drowsiness.  

 The estrogen based oral contraceptive pill has been effective in women with Fox-Fordyce disease by altering hormone levels but when treatment is stopped, the rash is likely to recur.  

 Oral isotretinoin (also known as Roaccutane) is a drug that can improve symptoms whilst it is being taken. This drug can cause side effects including birth abnormalities. It is used with caution in women of child-bearing age: a pregnancy prevention programme needs to be followed during treatment and for 1 month after stopping the medication.  

Surgical Options:  

Surgery using a laser may be helpful to remove the affected areas and therefore attempt a cure or the area may be cut away, but is likely to lead to scarring.

Animal Disease control and treatment

		1-Foreword
		2-Disease causes and symptoms
		3-Disease of Ruminants
		4-Diseases of pigs
		5-Diseases of chickens
		6-Diseases transmissible to people

 

Diseases of ruminants:

Foot-and-mouth disease

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute and highly contagious viral disease which affects all animals with hooves (such as cattle, water buffalo, goats and pigs). All ages are affected. 

Foot-and-mouth disease Symptoms

· Blister-like sores and ulcers on the feet, mouth, muzzle, udder and teats.

· High fever.

· Refusal to eat.

· Heavy salivation.

· Hooves sometimes fall off.

· Lameness.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Refer to booklet on Herbal medicine for animals. Herbal medical relieves only the symptoms of FMD.

· Western medicine. Treat the animal with any of the following:

— Alum (locally known as tawas) and gentian violet.

Dissolve alum in I glass of gentian violet. Use cotton to apply the solution to blisters 2-3 times a day. This will quickly dry up blisters.

— Formalin and gentian violet. Mix 1 glass of formalin with 1 glass of gentian violet. Apply the solution to the blisters 2-3 times a day. This will also dry up blisters.

— Antibiotics. Inject antibiotics like penicillinstreptomycin into the muscles of the hip or neck to fight complications. Repeat the injection for 34 days.

— Vitamins. Inject Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) into the muscles of the hip or neck to speed up wound healing.

Prevention

Regularly vaccinate animals against FMD.

· Isolate infected animals.

· Do not slaughter or sell infected animals. Destroy and bury them.

· Quarantine infected areas.

· Report FMD to the nearest office of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Hemorrhagic septicemia

Hemorrhagic septicemia is an acute infectious characterized by pneumonia. It occurs after a long, dry period and at the onset of rainy reason.

Symptoms

· Swelling of the neck.

· Difficultly in breathing. In the last stage of the disease, the animal's tongue sticks out because of breathing difficulty.

· High fever.

· Loss of appetite.

· Nasal discharge.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Boil tamarind or camphor leaves. (See booklet on Herbal medicine for animals.)

· Western medicine. Inject the following drugs:

— Ecolmin. This will loosen mucus in the respiratory tract. Site of injection: Muscle of hip or neck. Repeat the injection for 2-3 days.

— Antibiotic. Inject antibiotics like penicillin-streptomycin or trimethoprim-sulfa into the muscles of the hip or neck. Repeat the injection for 3-4 days.

Prevention

· Vaccinate animals against hemorrhagic septicemia. (Refer to vaccination.)

· Avoid stress to animals.

· Keep animals and shed clean and dry.

· Bury dead animals.

Tetanus

Tetanus is an acute, highly infectious, non-contagious disease. It is manifested by contractions the muscles. It affects humans, swine and ruminants. The bacteria gain ertrance through deep wounds that heal quickly on the outside.

Symptoms

Early stage

· Stiffness of the jaw (lockjaw).

· Erect ears.

· Extended tail.

Acute stage

· Protruded third eyelid (white to pinkish membrane found at the inner corner of the eye).

· Inability to swallow food and water.

Treatment

Inject the following drugs into the muscles:

· Tetanus antitoxin. Dosage: 10,000-50,000 International Units (IU) for cattle and buffaloes; 3,000-15,000 IU for goats and pigs

The exact amount will depend on:

—Degree of tissue damage.

—Amount of wound contamination.

—Time passed since injury.

· Acepromazine. This will lessen pain or excitement of the affected animal.

· Penicillin-streptomycin. Dosage: 5-15 cc per animal. Inject into the muscle of hip or neck. Repeat injection after 24 hours.

Prevention

· Regularly trim hooves. (See section on hoof trimming in Restraining animals and simple treatments.)

· Thoroughly clean all wounds as soon as they occur.

· Instruments for castration should be properly cleaned and disinfected. (See section on Restraining animals and simple treatments.)

· Inject tetanus antitoxin at a dose of 1,500 IU to protect the animal from tetanus for at least 10 days after the wound occurs.

Husbandry measures

· Put the animal in a quiet, dark place.

· When infection is found, the wound should be reopened and thoroughly cleaned.

Foot rot

Foot rot is a major cause of lameness in ruminants of all ages.

The bacteria multiply in wounds in the skin between hoof sections. 

Foot rot

Prolonged standing in mud, water, manure or urine can lead to foot rot. The bacteria enter cracks in the skin, causing painful swelling on the affected foot. The flesh dies and rots, causing a foul smell.

Symptoms

· Lameness.

· Hoof smells bad.

· Pus in the inflamed foot.

· Swelling.

Warning: If you see sores in the mouth of ruminants with foot rot, the problem may be FMD.

Treatment

· Wash the foot with lukewarm water and soap. Remove dirt or manure in the affected area.

· Apply or spray fly repellent like Gusanex or Negasunt, 2-3 times a day until the infected area is cured.

· Inject an antibiotic preparation such as penicillinstreptomycin. Inject into the muscle of hip or neck. If symptoms remain after 2-3 days, repeat the injection.

Prevention

· Provide salt in diet.

· Keep animals in a dry place.

· Regularly trim the hooves.

· Clear the pasture area of sharp objects such as glass, wire or sharp stones.

Tick infestation

Ticks are external parasites, dark in color and two or three centimeters in size when full of blood. They get on the livestock by climbing up on bushes and weeds and waiting for an animal to brush against them. They attach themselves to the skin of animals and suck their blood. Ticks can transmit serious diseases like tick fever.

Direct damage

· Hundreds or thousands of ticks infesting an animal can result in anemia, low milk production, weight loss and even death.

· Some species of ticks can cause tick paralysis.

· Ticks damage the animal's hide. A damaged hide reduces the market value of the animal.

Symptoms

· The animal scratches.

· The animal's hide has red patches (tick-bite marks noticeable in white-colored cattle and buffaloes).

· The animals show discomfort.

· A large number of ticks may be found in less hairy areas.

Humans can be infected with ticks while handling infested animals.

After sucking the blood, an adult female tick falls from the animal. It lays eggs on the ground, in sheltered places, under stones and in cracks in walls. After this, the tick dies.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Leaves of Gliricidia or Premna (Refer to section on Herbal medicine for animals).

· Dissolve 1 tsp of either Asuntol or Neguvon in 1 gallon of water. Use the solution to bathe the animal. Thoroughly rinse after 10 minutes

Warning: Do not allow the animal to lick the solution; it is toxic.

Prevention

· Regularly bathe the animal.

· Give salt to the animal.

· If your farm is near the sea, bathe your animal in the sea at least once a month.

Lice infestation 

Lice infestation in ruminants is the result of bad sanitation.

Symptoms

· Itchiness.

· Animals scratch or rub their bodies against trees, posts or their pens.

· Lice eggs concentrate at the tip of the tail, hair inside the ears, hair around the eyes and at the neck.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Leaves of Gliricidia or Premna (See Herbal medicine for animals.)

· Western medicine. Dissolve 1 tsp of Asuntol or Neguvon in I gallon of water. Bathe the animal with the solution. After 10 minutes, rinse the Knin al thoroughly.

Warning: Asuntol and Neguvon are toxic. They can cause poisoning and death to animals and humans.

Prevention

· Wash your animals regularly.

· If the place is near the sea, bathe the animals in the sea once a month for half an hour or so.

· Shave water buffaloes, especially during summer.

· Allow animals, particularly water buffaloes, to wallow in mud. Dried mud on the animal's skin stops parasites like ticks and lice from biting. 

Tapeworm infestation

Tapeworms are long, flat worms that live in the intestines of ruminants, robbing them of nutrients.

Diseases in Reptiles & Amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians make excellent pets, but just like all animals, they can be at risk for some common diseases and illnesses. Before you purchase a reptile or an amphibian as a pet for the family or your children, it is important to understand what types of diseases these animals can be prone to and how to avoid them.

Here are some of the most common diseases among reptiles and amphibians, so that your pets can have long, enjoyable lives while living under your care. 

1-Iridovirus:

Iridoviruses are non-enveloped DNA viruses that can affect amphibians, reptiles, insects, and fish. This type of virus can cause necrosis of tissues in the kidney, liver, and spleen. It can also cause anemia if the virus attacks the pet’s red blood cells. 

2-Herpesvirus: 

Herpesvirus is a large, enveloped DNA virus that has been shown to affect many reptile species, including lizards, snakes, and alligators. The most common signs of this virus include weakness, loss of appetite, regurgitation, nasal discharge, oral plaques, and swollen eyelids. If the virus isn’t treated, it can result in pneumonia and neurological problems.

3-Poxvirus: 

Poxvirus is an enveloped DNA virus that has been linked to lizards, tortoises, and crocodiles. The signs of this virus will include skin lesions scattered all over the body although they are most commonly found on the head. 

4-Adenovirus:

Adenovirus is a medium-sized, non-enveloped DNA virus that is most commonly found in bearded dragons and king snakes. This virus causes lesions on the liver and the intestines and if left untreated, it can cause neurological diseases. The most common signs include weight loss, loss of appetite, and elevated liver enzymes. When a reptile is diagnosed with adenovirus, the prognosis is usually negative. 

5-Ranavirus: 

Ranavirus is similar to iridovirus, but it is most commonly found in box turtles, flat-tail geckos, and green tree pythons. This virus causes lesions to form in the mouth, on the tongue, and in the liver. It can also cause ulceration of the nasal mucosa and liver necrosis, especially in pythons. 

6-Reovirus: 

Reovirus is a non-enveloped RNA virus found in several species of lizard, snake, and tortoise. This disease causes lesions similar to those seen in herpesviral, iridoviral, and picornaviral diseases so it can be difficult for a veterinarian to diagnose. 

7-Flavivirus: 

Flavivirus is a single-stranded RNA virus and it usually transmitted to reptiles and amphibians through the consumption of infected insects. West Nile virus is one of the most common flaviviruses to affect reptiles and it can cause encephalitis, stomatitis, liver disease, and death.

Diseases Affecting Lion Population

Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB):

Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) was introduced in the southern part of Kruger National Park by domestic cattle.  The disease has spread northwards through infected African buffalos (Syncerus caffer) with serious concerns for the viability of the Kruger lion population as well as the development of the Greater Limpopo Trans-frontier Conservation area . Aside from the clinical effects of bTB leading to greater mortality in affected populations the prevalence of the disease within Kruger has also been shown to drive social change with lower lion survival and breeding success with more frequent male coalition turnover and consequent higher infanticide.

Elsewhere, among the Serengeti lions, 4% of animals tested were seropositive for bTB .  The disease is also present in reserves adjacent to Kruger NP including Hluhuwe-iMfolozi .  bTB also occurs among buffalos in Queen Elizabeth NP, Uganda, although so far not observed among resident lions , and also among lechwe (Kobus leche) in Zambia’s Kafue NP .  Lions in Mozambique’s Niassa reserve have tested negative for the disease (Colleen Begg, pers comms. 2011)

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Canine Distemper (CDV):

Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) affects both free-living and captive carnivores worldwide, and is now recognised as a cause of large-scale epidemics in felids ]. Primarily transmission is by aerosol transfer or contact with bodily exudates containing the virus. Clinical symptoms mainly affect the respiratory, gastro-intestinal and central nervous systems, causing grand mal seizures and myoclonus with mortalities usually occurring due to encephalitis or pneumonia.

Lion populations in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem experienced two major CDV epidemics in 1994 and 2001, with the disease originating in domestic dogs. The 2001 outbreak in the Ngorongoro Crater caused 35% mortality among its small population of lions , while the 1994 outbreak that hit the Serengeti National Park lions, spreading North to Kenya’s Maasai Mara National Reserve infected 85% of lions causing mortalities in a third of the 3000 strong population . Several other carnivore species were also affected and a single CDV variant was found circulating in lions, spotted hyenas, bat-eared foxes, and domestic dogs, suggesting extensive inter-specific transmission.

Possible explanations for such high mortality rates of infection in these outbreaks include the emergence of a particularly virulent strain of CDV, repeated introduction due to multi-host disease spill-over and climate extremes, coinciding with both outbreaks, which created conditions exacerbating the immunosuppressive effects of infection, which may otherwise have been tolerated in isolation .

CDV antibodies have also been detected in Central Kalahari lions and in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park . CDV has been, and continues to be, present across much of Southern Africa, in its domestic dog and wild carnivore populations.  Lions in Mozambique’s Niassa reserve have tested negative for the disease (Colleen Begg, pers comms.     

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Feline Parvovirus (FPV):

Also known as feline infectious enteritis (FIE) or feline panleukopenia, feline parvovirus (FPV) is an acute, enteric, viral infection of domestic and exotic felines caused by a single stranded DNA virus, from the Parvoviridae family 

Parvovirus is very stable in the environment and indirect transmission can spread rapidly.  In naïve populations this can be the cause of high mortality.

Clinical symptoms include depression, vomiting and diarrhoea. Ataxia (tremors and jerky movements) may also ensue due to cerebellar hypoplasia which will be more noticeable in young cubs .

Antibody titers for FPV are highly prevalent in Serengeti populations (75%) but less so in the nearby Ngorongoro Crater population (27%).  Other locations with published results include Laka Manyara region (60%), Kruger National Park (84%), Etosha National Park (0%) and Central Kalahari Game Reserves (0%) .

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Feline Calicivirus (FCV):

Feline Calicivirus (FCV) has been well documented among domestic felines; more so than exotic felids. Nevertheless, this highly prevalent pathogen has been found to have infected wild members of the Felidae , and the nature, severity and clinical signs associated with FCV in exotic felines are similar to those reported in domestic cats .

FCV is related to upper respiratory tract diseases and can be identified by rhinitis, pneumonia, fever, lameness and oral ulcerations . The FCV strain usually causes temporary infection and appears to be harmless in most cases. However, upon recovery, the infected host may still act as an asymptomatic carrier ; potentially infecting those who are susceptible to the disease. 

Outbreaks of the virus have been reported in different lion populations residing in Africa. The prevalence rate has fluctuated in each population, with FCV being absent from the small, isolated Crater population in Ngorongoro , to occurring at low prevalence in Botswana , to being highly prevalent in the Serengeti Plains . This suggests that the FCV infection occurs in populations of high density, with outbreaks increasing as the size of the susceptible host population grows . 

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Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) :

Feline Coronavirus is an upper respiratory infection not dissimilar to FHV, which is transmitted by various routes; faecal, oral and possibly aerosolized. It can infect domestic animals such as dogs and in cats has been known to develop into the more pathogenic feline infectious peritonitis . It has also been found to be the cause of high mortality in domestic kittens.

Like many of the other epidemic diseases (such as parvovirus or calicivirus) found in serological studies of lions there have been no consistent signs of clinical disease for FCoV .

Unlike the endemic diseases, FCoV is an epidemic disease, and thus has different implications for wild lion populations. Epidemic diseases by nature briefly sweep through a population often inflicting a high mortality rate however, due to this high mortality and a lack of further susceptible hosts the initial bursts are short lived. The disease will then return through the population at a later date once there are sufficient numbers of susceptible individuals, known cases of this include coronavirus, parvovirus and calicivirus in the Serengeti lion population . FCoV has been found in varying levels of population infection throughout African lion populations .

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Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)

Feline Infectious Peritonitis is a viral disease caused by some strains of feline coronavirus (FCoV) either by mutation of the virus or by an aberration of the immune response.  Cats with weak immune systems such as young or old cats and those infected with feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) are at particular risk from developing FIP from FCoV.

An intense inflammatory reaction occurs around vessels in the tissue; often in the abdomen, kidney or brain.  The virus is unique in that antibodies actually assist the infection of white blood cells of the FIP virus.  Clinical FIP is progressive and almost always fatal. Symptoms include inappetance, weight loss, depression, anemia, fever and roughening of the fur.  Fluid may also accumulate in the abdomen causing difficulty in breathing when accumulation becomes significant.

Top 10 Diseases of Ducks

DUCKS arc waterfowl and scavengers by nature and are relatively resistant to many common diseases of birds. The large, modern, commercial duck ranch is a long step from nature, how^- ever. Confinement creates such problems as a damp, ammonia-laden atmosphere; rapid spread of some diseases that are almost unknown in wild ducks (paratyphoid, scrositis, and fowl cholera); heavy insect populations; and leg weakness. On the other side of the ledger, confinement rearing (with a controlled water supply) has all but eliminated western duck sickness (botulism), parasitism, and attack from predatory animals, which are scourges of wild ducks. The duck rancher has to provide an escape for moisture to prevent ammonia burn. To accomplish that he replaces the litter daily or provides wire floors over washable pits on at least part of the building. Other problems, such as botulism, have been solved by the use of pelleted feed and a constant water level. Flies can be controlled by modern chemicals. They must be checked before use, however, because some of the thiophosphates, w^hich are safe to use in chicken houses, are highly toxic to ducks. 
  

1-PARATYPHOID: 

PARATYPHOID or keel is an infectious disease of young ducklings (also of turkeys and other birds). It is caused chiefly by a bacterium. Salmonella iyphimurium, and to a less extent by other species of salmonellas. Mortality is usually low (less than lo percent) on Long Island, but poor incubator and brooder management increase the death rate. The name "keel," which stems from early observations that the ducks suddenly keel over when dying, is misleading. Often the ducklings become dehydrated and emaciated and die slowly. They may gasp for air or tremble, as though chilled. The common lesions are small, w^hite spots on the liver, cheesy plugs in the blind gut, and a thickening of the wall of the large gut. The best preventive measure we know of is to fumigate the eggs during early incubation and the hatching unit betw^cen hatches. Potassium permanganate and formalin are recommended. Potassium permanganate crystals should be used at the rate of one-half ounce (weighed) and i ounce of formalin (measured) to every 8o cubic feet of incuJDator or hatcher space. The potassium permanganate crystals are placed in an earthenware vessel 
with a capacity of i pint for each ounce of formalin required. The vessel is placed on the floor of the machine and the formalin poured over the crystals. The doors and vents should be closed for 15 minutes. This procedure should be followed in the incubator 3 to 5 days after each new lot of eggs is set, and in the hatcher between hatches after the hatcher has been cleaned. Fumigation should not be done while the ducklings are hatching. The farmer should not inhale the fumes and should handle the poisonous formalin carefully. Treatment consists of rigid culling and sulfonamide medication in the feed or drinking water. NF-180 can be used in the feed at the rate of 2 pounds to the ton for a week to 10 days. Sulfamethazine can be used in the drinking water at the rate of i ounce (2 tablespoons) to the gallon of drinking water for 2 days; the treatment can be repeated after 4 days, if necessary. The ducks should be kept on clean bedding, because S. typhimurium may be found in the feces of affected ducks and can be transmitted by ingestion of infected material. The bacteria can live 28 weeks in feces. Thorough cleaning and disinfecting of the brooder house after removal of an infected flock therefore is important. 

2-VIRUS HEPATITIS: 

Baby duck disease—is a highly fatal virus disease of young ducklings. It runs rapidly through a flock and kills many. The dead and dying birds are found with their heads thrown back. The disease was first discovered in white pekin ducks on Long Island in January 1950. The virus since has been isolated from wild ducks (mallards) on Long Island and from domesticated ducks in Massachusetts, western New York, Illinois, and England. Losses up to 90 percent are common and occur within 2 days of the first death. The biggest ducklings in a flock die first and without warning. Individuals are dead 30 minutes after showing the first signs. They lie on their sides with their heads thrown back. The feet may paddle as though they were swimming, and the beak often is purple. Lesions consist of small hemorrhages on the liver and mottling of the spleen and kidneys. Treatment with serum from ducks that have recovered from the disease has been used successfully. A serum bank sufficient to treat many thousands of ducklings is maintained on Long Island. The bank consists of about 2 million milliliters of blood serum collected at slaughter from ducks that had the disease and recovered. The serum is separated from the clots and treated with a preservative. The serum is then stored under refrigeration and issued, as needed, to the duck farm. Geese, muscovies, chickens, turkeys, and game birds reared in contact with infected ducks have failed to show any evidence of the disease.  
3-ASPERGILLOSIS:
Aspergillosis, a respiratory disease of young ducklings, is caused by the fungus Aspergillosis fumigatus. It is also known as brooder pneumonia and gaps. Ducklings less than 2 weeks old are most susceptible, but the fungus has been found growing in the air sacs of ducks of all ages, including breeders. Affected birds gasp for air and the head and neck are extended. Many become weak and actually may die of thirst. Cheesy nodules, from pinpoint size to one-eighth inch across, occur in the lungs and air sacs. The filamentous type of growth, similar to that seen on moldy bread, may be present in the air sacs of older ducks. Moldy litter, the most common cause of an outbreak, should never be used for young ducklings. Moldy feed should be avoided. Every efifort should be made to keep the area around the water fountains dry through the use of wire platforms and drains. Treatment of individual birds is unsatisfactory. The litter in affected pens should be removed or covered with fresh litter. 

4-INFECTIOUS SEROSITIS: 

Anatipestifer infection or ''new duck disease"—is so widespread as to be the most important disease problem of the duck industry. It is a bacterial disease caused by Moraxelia anatipestifer. The symptoms are coughing, staggering, and loss of equilibrium. Frequently the ducks lie on their sides or backs and paddle their feet. Death often is due to water starvation, rather than to the primary infection. Loose green and white droppings are common in a pen of affected ducks. Losses up to 75 percent have been recorded. The characteristic lesion consists of a cream-colored, gelatinous membrane, one-sixteenth inch or more thick, over the heart and liver. The air sacs may contain a yellow, cheesy exúdate. The liver and spleen are enlarged. Hemorrhages may be present beneath the capsule of the liver. Terramycin suspension in oil gives good control for about 5 days. The treatment consists of injecting the drug under the skin of the neck at the rate of 12.5 milligrams per pound of body weight. Treatment may have to be repeated. Sulfa drugs have been widely used, with varying results. One and one-half pounds of sulfaquinoxaline per ton of feed is the recommended level. The ducks should be starved for 4 to 6 hours and the medicated feed given for the remainder of a 24-hour period. This treatment may be repeated if necessary. 

5-FOWL CHOLERA: 

Pasteurellosis—is an infectious bacterial disease of ducks and other birds. The cause is a bacterial organism, Pasteurella multocida. Chickens, turkeys, geese, and other species are susceptible. Losses from fowl cholera are seldom seen in ducks under 4 weeks old. Affected ducks are hot to the touch, the skin is usually red, and the healthy birds in the flock frequently pick the feathers from the sick and dying birds. Swollen hockjoints may be seen in flocks following an outbreak of fowl choleraHemorrhages usually are found on the heart. Cheesy masses may be seen in the air sacs and on the heart. The liver and spleen are enlarged and mottled. Small, white spots may be found in the liver. The blood vessels of the intestines and other organs are engorged with blood. Diagnosis must be made by isolation and identification of the causative organism, since the lesions of fowl cholera and infectious serositis are easily confused. Fresh drinking water and clean quarters appear to be of some importance in the control of cholera in ducks. Bacterins consisting of either chemically killed or heat-killed liquid cultures of Pasteurella multocida have been used successfully. Two doses of i to 2 milliliters (determined by the size of the duck) of duck-origin bacterin a week apart are inoculated intramuscularly at least a week before an anticipated outbreak. The egg-embryo vaccine is more effective than broth bacterins for the control of the fowl cholera in ducks. Treatment with sulfonamides is of some value, but not all outbreaks respond to it. Terramycin oil, as given for infectious serositis, is effective for short periods. Ducks dead of cholera should be burned or buried deep, because the cholera organism can survive for long periods in carcasses.  

6-LEUCOGYTOZOON : 

Leucogytozoon infection has not been reported in the duck-growing area of Long Island, but it is a major problem in some areas of the United States where the blackfly (Simulium) is present in large numbers. The disease is caused by a protozoa, Leucotozoon simondi, which attacks the blood cells. Affected birds may exhibit thirst, become weak, and be highly excitable. Death usually occurs a few hours after symptoms are noted. The blood is thin and does not clot readily. The spleen may be swollen and dark or mottled.  
Control consists of rearing ducks in a screened area or discontinuing production during the blackfly season. No adequate treatment is available. 

7-BOTULISM: 

BOTULISM—limberneck—is poisoning caused by the toxin formed in putrefying animal and vegetable matter by the growth of bacteria known as Closiridium hotulinum. When the toxin is consumed, the ducks develop a paralysis of the neck muscles (limber neck), and the feathers become loose. Diagnosis is made by finding the toxin in the blood of sick ducks; to do that, the suspected serum is inoculated into immune and nonimmune mice. Pellet feeding, maintaining a constant water level in streams and ponds, and prompt removal of all dead animals and birds aid in the control. The treatment of the birds with antitoxin is recommended only when the individual value of the bird is high. GoGGiDiosis is a minor problem in ducks, although some outbreaks, with losses up to 24 percent, have been reported. External parasites of ducks include the duck louse {Anatoecus dentatus), which is frequently found on the heads of breeding birds on Long Island. Control consists of dusting 5-perccnt DDT under the feathers on the head of the affected ducks at the time of selecting breeders. INFLAMMATION of the eye, eyelids, and the mucous membranes of the nose and throat resulting from ammonia fumes generated in feces is common in ducks. Frequent removal of the litter and good ventilation are the best control measures. 

8-SALT POISONING: 

The toxic level for salt is 2-percent sodium chloride in the feed, 4,000 parts per million in the drinking water, or any combination. High salt levels depress growth in ducklings and lower the fertility and hatchability of eggs of breeder ducks. 

 

9-FOREIGN BODY PENETRATION: 

Ducks are known for their habit of eating shiny objects. Nails, wire, screws, and other objects that are ingested penetrate the gizzard or intestine. Special care must be exercised to remove such objects from pens or yards, especially after making repairs on buildings that house ducks. SuGH GONDITIONS as prolapse of the oviduct and paralysis of the penis occur in breeding flocks. The true cause of these conditions is unknown. Forcing the birds into production is thought to play a part. All birds thus affected should be removed from the breeding flock immediately, so as to prevent the development of cannibalism. Ducks that have a tendency to prolapse of the oviduct or paralysis of the penis should not be used in a breeding flock, even if they recover. Impaction of the oviduct may occur as the result of infection or other unknown causes, which prevent the movement of partly or fully formed eggs down the oviduct. Internal layers are found occasionally in laying ducks. Reversed peristalsis in the oviduct deposits the fully formed eggs in the abdominal cavity.

10-Ascites: 

Ascites or water belly, is a common condition in ducks. The accumulation of fluids in the abdominal cavity is usually the result of interference with the circulation of blood through the liver. The incidence of tumors in domestic ducks is extremely low. Tumors of the liver, lungs, kidneys, and oviduct have been reported in ducks.