Bovine Respiratory Disease in Cattles

Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting the North American beef cattle industry. In the broadest sense, BRD refers to any disease of the upper or lower respiratory tracts. BRD is commonly associated with infections of the lungs causing pneumonia in calves that have recently been weaned or recently arrived at the feedlot (which is why it is often referred to as shipping fever). BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival to the feedlot, but it can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture. 

• Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting the North American beef cattle industry

• It is often referred to as shipping fever

• BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival to the feedlot, but it can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture

• Classical clinical signs of bacterial BRD include:

• fever of over 40°C (>104°F)

• difficulty breathing

• nasal discharge

• varying degrees of depression

• diminished or no appetite (‘off-feed’)

• rapid, shallow breathing

• coughing

• Risk factors

• Environmental factors such as transport, adverse weather, co-mingling, stressful events (ie. dehorning, castration, weaning, auction)

• Prevention

• Precondition calves before marketing

• After arrival at the feedlot, provide a vaccination and general good animal husbandry

• Treatment

• It is best to work with your veterinarian for the appropriate medication and dosage

• Common causes of treatment failure include;

• Pathology of the lesion too far advanced

• Wrong diagnosis

• Simultaneous disease process (e.g.: Overt IBR, Post calving metritis)

• Inadequate dosage

• Overuse or inappropriate use of Ancillary Pharmaceutics  
•  
• Causes: 

BRD is a complex multi-factorial disease, which means that a number of factors must interact to cause the disease. For example, researchers can recover the bacteria and viruses responsible for BRD from the nasal passages of healthy cattle. However, other factors such as the stress from transport, mixing, and weather are needed in order for BRD to develop. There are 3 main categories of factors associated with all diseases, and BRD in particular: 

• Host factors, which refers to the characteristics of an animal that make it more prone to the disease, such as: age, immune status, prior exposure to the pathogens, genetics, etc. environmental factors such as transport, commingling, temperature fluctuations, crowding, ventilation, auction-sourced, etc.  
  Infectious agents or pathogens that are necessary for causing the disease. These can broadly be categorized as viruses, bacteria and parasites: Viruses, including: bovine herpes virus (IBR); bovine parainfluenza virus (PI-3); bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV); bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVD), and bovine coronavirus (BCV). 
  • Bacteria, including Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni and Mycoplasma spp. 
  • Parasites, including lungworm 

• BRD is a complex multi-factorial disease, which means that a number of factors must interact to cause the disease. For example, researchers can recover the bacteria and viruses responsible for BRD from the nasal passages of healthy cattle. However, other factors such as the stress from transport, mixing, and weather are needed in order for BRD to develop. There are 3 main categories of factors associated with all diseases, and BRD in particular

5 diseases that transfer to human from animals

1. Cat scratch disease (CSD):  

Humans can contract this bacterial infection when an infected cat scratches or bites them. A cat can also transfer the disease if it licks an open wound on a human body.

The disease is caused by a bacterium called Bartonella henselae.

Symptoms of CSD, which include fatigue, headaches, swollen lymph nodes, may only appear 14 days after the initial infection and may result in brain disease or inflammation of the optic nerve. 

2. Listeriosis: 

he disease, which recently led to the death of a pregnant South African woman, is mostly contracted through the ingestion of contaminated food. 

The bacterium, Listeria monocytogenes, is occurs in poultry and cattle and can be passed to humans through the ingestion of the meat of an infected animal, or dairy products made from the milk of infected cattle.

Symptoms of the disease range from headaches to confusion and seizures. Listeriosis can be fatal in some cases. 

3.Rabies: 

Perhaps the most commonly known zoonotic disease, rabies causes more than 59 000 worldwide deaths annually. According to the South African National Travel Health Network (SaNTHNet), 95% of deaths as a result of rabies occur in Africa and Asia. 

Rabies can be transferred to humans through the bite of an infected animal. In South Africa, many reported cases are a result of dog bites.

Fever, intolerance of bright light, hyperactivity as well as fear of water are some of the symptoms of rabies.

Paralytic rabies, which accounts for 30% of human rabies cases, can result in gradual paralysis and eventually death. 

4.Query Fever: 

Also called Q fever, this bacterial infection can be passed from animals to humans by simply breathing in dust that has been exposed to the faeces, urine or milk of an infected animal.

Likely to be found in goats, sheep and cattle, severe infection can lead to pneumonia and hepatitis.

Infected humans will experience fever, night sweats or chills, stomach pains, nausea and vomiting. 

5.Plague: 

With most cases of the plague occurring in Africa, this zoonotic disease can be fatal if left untreated.

Often passed to humans through the bite of an infected rodent or fleas, symptoms of the plague begin to show within six days of the onset of infection. Infected people will experience chills, chest pain, body aches as well as a sudden fever. 

If left untreated, the bacteria could enter the bloodstream and cause septicemic plague. The bacteria can also enter the lungs and result in pneumonic plague – which is fatal if not treated early. 

FOX-FORDYCE DISEASE

FOX-FORDYCE DISEASE  

What are the aims of this leaflet?   

This leaflet has been written to help you understand Fox-Fordyce disease. It explains what Fox-Fordyce disease is and why it occurs. This leaflet also details what treatments are available, and where you can get more information.  

What is Fox-Fordyce disease? 

Fox-Fordyce disease is a rare skin disorder affecting the apocrine sweat glands. These are special sweat glands found in the armpits, genital region and breasts that produce a more dense secretion than the normal or ‘eccrine’ sweat glands found elsewhere on the body. Patients with this condition experience itchy bumps on the skin around the hair follicles. 

 What causes Fox-Fordyce disease?  

The disease is believed to be caused by blockage of the apocrine sweat glands. It is not yet known why these glands become blocked. Fox-Fordyce disease commonly occurs under conditions of excess heat, humidity and stress. It can develop in anyone at any age, but most commonly arises in women of child-bearing age. Hormones are therefore believed to play a role, but the exact link has not yet been discovered.  

Is Fox-Fordyce disease hereditary? 

 No, Fox-Fordyce disease is not hereditary.

 What are the symptoms of Fox-Fordyce disease? 

The rash can be very itchy, especially when patients are experiencing high levels of stress or emotion. It is also worsened by heat and friction, and may become troublesome at night.  

What does Fox-Fordyce disease look like? 

Fox-Fordyce disease usually appears as small fluid-filled blisters, skincoloured spots or darkened spots at the base of the hair follicles. 

How is Fox-Fordyce disease diagnosed? 

The diagnosis is normally made “clinically,” from a patient’s history and by examining the appearance of the rash. Occasionally a skin biopsy may be performed to rule out other diseases. A skin biopsy is when a small sample of skin is removed and examined under a microscope.

 Can Fox-Fordyce disease be cured? 

There is no simple cure for Fox-Fordyce disease. In some people, it improves on its own. In the meantime, the symptoms can be controlled to varying extents with treatments.  

How can Fox-Fordyce disease be treated? 

To date large treatment trials have not been carried out. However, available treatment recommendations come from case reports in the research literature and so the advice is limited by the lack of evidence. Treatment is therefore difficult as no single treatment has been shown to be very effective. Topical Therapies (treatment applied to the skin): There are a number of topical therapies. Gels and lotions are better than the more greasy creams and ointments.  

 Topical steroid creams can relieve the itching. However, strong steroids should not be used continuously as they may cause thinning of the skin. Steroids have been injected into problematic areas with some success but again there is a risk of causing skin thinning. 

 Topical calcineurin inhibitors (e.g. tacrolimus or pemecrolimus) can also be used to calm itching and do not cause skin thinning, but can cause a burning sensation. 

 Topical retinoids such as tretinoin or adapalene may be used to try and reduce the rash, but can cause further skin irritation. 

 Topical antibiotics such as clindamycin have also been used successfully.   

 Phototherapy, using an ultraviolet light may be used, but careful consideration is needed as light treatment carries an increased risk of developing skin cancer, particularly with long term use. Oral  

 

Treatments (those taken by mouth):  

 

 Antihistamine tablets can be used to control the itching, especially if it is interrupting sleep. Antihistamines are normally well tolerated with few side effects, but may cause drowsiness.  

 The estrogen based oral contraceptive pill has been effective in women with Fox-Fordyce disease by altering hormone levels but when treatment is stopped, the rash is likely to recur.  

 Oral isotretinoin (also known as Roaccutane) is a drug that can improve symptoms whilst it is being taken. This drug can cause side effects including birth abnormalities. It is used with caution in women of child-bearing age: a pregnancy prevention programme needs to be followed during treatment and for 1 month after stopping the medication.  

Surgical Options:  

Surgery using a laser may be helpful to remove the affected areas and therefore attempt a cure or the area may be cut away, but is likely to lead to scarring.

Animal Disease control and treatment

		1-Foreword
		2-Disease causes and symptoms
		3-Disease of Ruminants
		4-Diseases of pigs
		5-Diseases of chickens
		6-Diseases transmissible to people

 

Diseases of ruminants:

Foot-and-mouth disease

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute and highly contagious viral disease which affects all animals with hooves (such as cattle, water buffalo, goats and pigs). All ages are affected. 

Foot-and-mouth disease Symptoms

· Blister-like sores and ulcers on the feet, mouth, muzzle, udder and teats.

· High fever.

· Refusal to eat.

· Heavy salivation.

· Hooves sometimes fall off.

· Lameness.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Refer to booklet on Herbal medicine for animals. Herbal medical relieves only the symptoms of FMD.

· Western medicine. Treat the animal with any of the following:

— Alum (locally known as tawas) and gentian violet.

Dissolve alum in I glass of gentian violet. Use cotton to apply the solution to blisters 2-3 times a day. This will quickly dry up blisters.

— Formalin and gentian violet. Mix 1 glass of formalin with 1 glass of gentian violet. Apply the solution to the blisters 2-3 times a day. This will also dry up blisters.

— Antibiotics. Inject antibiotics like penicillinstreptomycin into the muscles of the hip or neck to fight complications. Repeat the injection for 34 days.

— Vitamins. Inject Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) into the muscles of the hip or neck to speed up wound healing.

Prevention

Regularly vaccinate animals against FMD.

· Isolate infected animals.

· Do not slaughter or sell infected animals. Destroy and bury them.

· Quarantine infected areas.

· Report FMD to the nearest office of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Hemorrhagic septicemia

Hemorrhagic septicemia is an acute infectious characterized by pneumonia. It occurs after a long, dry period and at the onset of rainy reason.

Symptoms

· Swelling of the neck.

· Difficultly in breathing. In the last stage of the disease, the animal's tongue sticks out because of breathing difficulty.

· High fever.

· Loss of appetite.

· Nasal discharge.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Boil tamarind or camphor leaves. (See booklet on Herbal medicine for animals.)

· Western medicine. Inject the following drugs:

— Ecolmin. This will loosen mucus in the respiratory tract. Site of injection: Muscle of hip or neck. Repeat the injection for 2-3 days.

— Antibiotic. Inject antibiotics like penicillin-streptomycin or trimethoprim-sulfa into the muscles of the hip or neck. Repeat the injection for 3-4 days.

Prevention

· Vaccinate animals against hemorrhagic septicemia. (Refer to vaccination.)

· Avoid stress to animals.

· Keep animals and shed clean and dry.

· Bury dead animals.

Tetanus

Tetanus is an acute, highly infectious, non-contagious disease. It is manifested by contractions the muscles. It affects humans, swine and ruminants. The bacteria gain ertrance through deep wounds that heal quickly on the outside.

Symptoms

Early stage

· Stiffness of the jaw (lockjaw).

· Erect ears.

· Extended tail.

Acute stage

· Protruded third eyelid (white to pinkish membrane found at the inner corner of the eye).

· Inability to swallow food and water.

Treatment

Inject the following drugs into the muscles:

· Tetanus antitoxin. Dosage: 10,000-50,000 International Units (IU) for cattle and buffaloes; 3,000-15,000 IU for goats and pigs

The exact amount will depend on:

—Degree of tissue damage.

—Amount of wound contamination.

—Time passed since injury.

· Acepromazine. This will lessen pain or excitement of the affected animal.

· Penicillin-streptomycin. Dosage: 5-15 cc per animal. Inject into the muscle of hip or neck. Repeat injection after 24 hours.

Prevention

· Regularly trim hooves. (See section on hoof trimming in Restraining animals and simple treatments.)

· Thoroughly clean all wounds as soon as they occur.

· Instruments for castration should be properly cleaned and disinfected. (See section on Restraining animals and simple treatments.)

· Inject tetanus antitoxin at a dose of 1,500 IU to protect the animal from tetanus for at least 10 days after the wound occurs.

Husbandry measures

· Put the animal in a quiet, dark place.

· When infection is found, the wound should be reopened and thoroughly cleaned.

Foot rot

Foot rot is a major cause of lameness in ruminants of all ages.

The bacteria multiply in wounds in the skin between hoof sections. 

Foot rot

Prolonged standing in mud, water, manure or urine can lead to foot rot. The bacteria enter cracks in the skin, causing painful swelling on the affected foot. The flesh dies and rots, causing a foul smell.

Symptoms

· Lameness.

· Hoof smells bad.

· Pus in the inflamed foot.

· Swelling.

Warning: If you see sores in the mouth of ruminants with foot rot, the problem may be FMD.

Treatment

· Wash the foot with lukewarm water and soap. Remove dirt or manure in the affected area.

· Apply or spray fly repellent like Gusanex or Negasunt, 2-3 times a day until the infected area is cured.

· Inject an antibiotic preparation such as penicillinstreptomycin. Inject into the muscle of hip or neck. If symptoms remain after 2-3 days, repeat the injection.

Prevention

· Provide salt in diet.

· Keep animals in a dry place.

· Regularly trim the hooves.

· Clear the pasture area of sharp objects such as glass, wire or sharp stones.

Tick infestation

Ticks are external parasites, dark in color and two or three centimeters in size when full of blood. They get on the livestock by climbing up on bushes and weeds and waiting for an animal to brush against them. They attach themselves to the skin of animals and suck their blood. Ticks can transmit serious diseases like tick fever.

Direct damage

· Hundreds or thousands of ticks infesting an animal can result in anemia, low milk production, weight loss and even death.

· Some species of ticks can cause tick paralysis.

· Ticks damage the animal's hide. A damaged hide reduces the market value of the animal.

Symptoms

· The animal scratches.

· The animal's hide has red patches (tick-bite marks noticeable in white-colored cattle and buffaloes).

· The animals show discomfort.

· A large number of ticks may be found in less hairy areas.

Humans can be infected with ticks while handling infested animals.

After sucking the blood, an adult female tick falls from the animal. It lays eggs on the ground, in sheltered places, under stones and in cracks in walls. After this, the tick dies.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Leaves of Gliricidia or Premna (Refer to section on Herbal medicine for animals).

· Dissolve 1 tsp of either Asuntol or Neguvon in 1 gallon of water. Use the solution to bathe the animal. Thoroughly rinse after 10 minutes

Warning: Do not allow the animal to lick the solution; it is toxic.

Prevention

· Regularly bathe the animal.

· Give salt to the animal.

· If your farm is near the sea, bathe your animal in the sea at least once a month.

Lice infestation 

Lice infestation in ruminants is the result of bad sanitation.

Symptoms

· Itchiness.

· Animals scratch or rub their bodies against trees, posts or their pens.

· Lice eggs concentrate at the tip of the tail, hair inside the ears, hair around the eyes and at the neck.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Leaves of Gliricidia or Premna (See Herbal medicine for animals.)

· Western medicine. Dissolve 1 tsp of Asuntol or Neguvon in I gallon of water. Bathe the animal with the solution. After 10 minutes, rinse the Knin al thoroughly.

Warning: Asuntol and Neguvon are toxic. They can cause poisoning and death to animals and humans.

Prevention

· Wash your animals regularly.

· If the place is near the sea, bathe the animals in the sea once a month for half an hour or so.

· Shave water buffaloes, especially during summer.

· Allow animals, particularly water buffaloes, to wallow in mud. Dried mud on the animal's skin stops parasites like ticks and lice from biting. 

Tapeworm infestation

Tapeworms are long, flat worms that live in the intestines of ruminants, robbing them of nutrients.

Diseases in Reptiles & Amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians make excellent pets, but just like all animals, they can be at risk for some common diseases and illnesses. Before you purchase a reptile or an amphibian as a pet for the family or your children, it is important to understand what types of diseases these animals can be prone to and how to avoid them.

Here are some of the most common diseases among reptiles and amphibians, so that your pets can have long, enjoyable lives while living under your care. 

1-Iridovirus:

Iridoviruses are non-enveloped DNA viruses that can affect amphibians, reptiles, insects, and fish. This type of virus can cause necrosis of tissues in the kidney, liver, and spleen. It can also cause anemia if the virus attacks the pet’s red blood cells. 

2-Herpesvirus: 

Herpesvirus is a large, enveloped DNA virus that has been shown to affect many reptile species, including lizards, snakes, and alligators. The most common signs of this virus include weakness, loss of appetite, regurgitation, nasal discharge, oral plaques, and swollen eyelids. If the virus isn’t treated, it can result in pneumonia and neurological problems.

3-Poxvirus: 

Poxvirus is an enveloped DNA virus that has been linked to lizards, tortoises, and crocodiles. The signs of this virus will include skin lesions scattered all over the body although they are most commonly found on the head. 

4-Adenovirus:

Adenovirus is a medium-sized, non-enveloped DNA virus that is most commonly found in bearded dragons and king snakes. This virus causes lesions on the liver and the intestines and if left untreated, it can cause neurological diseases. The most common signs include weight loss, loss of appetite, and elevated liver enzymes. When a reptile is diagnosed with adenovirus, the prognosis is usually negative. 

5-Ranavirus: 

Ranavirus is similar to iridovirus, but it is most commonly found in box turtles, flat-tail geckos, and green tree pythons. This virus causes lesions to form in the mouth, on the tongue, and in the liver. It can also cause ulceration of the nasal mucosa and liver necrosis, especially in pythons. 

6-Reovirus: 

Reovirus is a non-enveloped RNA virus found in several species of lizard, snake, and tortoise. This disease causes lesions similar to those seen in herpesviral, iridoviral, and picornaviral diseases so it can be difficult for a veterinarian to diagnose. 

7-Flavivirus: 

Flavivirus is a single-stranded RNA virus and it usually transmitted to reptiles and amphibians through the consumption of infected insects. West Nile virus is one of the most common flaviviruses to affect reptiles and it can cause encephalitis, stomatitis, liver disease, and death.

Diseases Affecting Lion Population

Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB):

Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) was introduced in the southern part of Kruger National Park by domestic cattle.  The disease has spread northwards through infected African buffalos (Syncerus caffer) with serious concerns for the viability of the Kruger lion population as well as the development of the Greater Limpopo Trans-frontier Conservation area . Aside from the clinical effects of bTB leading to greater mortality in affected populations the prevalence of the disease within Kruger has also been shown to drive social change with lower lion survival and breeding success with more frequent male coalition turnover and consequent higher infanticide.

Elsewhere, among the Serengeti lions, 4% of animals tested were seropositive for bTB .  The disease is also present in reserves adjacent to Kruger NP including Hluhuwe-iMfolozi .  bTB also occurs among buffalos in Queen Elizabeth NP, Uganda, although so far not observed among resident lions , and also among lechwe (Kobus leche) in Zambia’s Kafue NP .  Lions in Mozambique’s Niassa reserve have tested negative for the disease (Colleen Begg, pers comms. 2011)

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Canine Distemper (CDV):

Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) affects both free-living and captive carnivores worldwide, and is now recognised as a cause of large-scale epidemics in felids ]. Primarily transmission is by aerosol transfer or contact with bodily exudates containing the virus. Clinical symptoms mainly affect the respiratory, gastro-intestinal and central nervous systems, causing grand mal seizures and myoclonus with mortalities usually occurring due to encephalitis or pneumonia.

Lion populations in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem experienced two major CDV epidemics in 1994 and 2001, with the disease originating in domestic dogs. The 2001 outbreak in the Ngorongoro Crater caused 35% mortality among its small population of lions , while the 1994 outbreak that hit the Serengeti National Park lions, spreading North to Kenya’s Maasai Mara National Reserve infected 85% of lions causing mortalities in a third of the 3000 strong population . Several other carnivore species were also affected and a single CDV variant was found circulating in lions, spotted hyenas, bat-eared foxes, and domestic dogs, suggesting extensive inter-specific transmission.

Possible explanations for such high mortality rates of infection in these outbreaks include the emergence of a particularly virulent strain of CDV, repeated introduction due to multi-host disease spill-over and climate extremes, coinciding with both outbreaks, which created conditions exacerbating the immunosuppressive effects of infection, which may otherwise have been tolerated in isolation .

CDV antibodies have also been detected in Central Kalahari lions and in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park . CDV has been, and continues to be, present across much of Southern Africa, in its domestic dog and wild carnivore populations.  Lions in Mozambique’s Niassa reserve have tested negative for the disease (Colleen Begg, pers comms.     

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Feline Parvovirus (FPV):

Also known as feline infectious enteritis (FIE) or feline panleukopenia, feline parvovirus (FPV) is an acute, enteric, viral infection of domestic and exotic felines caused by a single stranded DNA virus, from the Parvoviridae family 

Parvovirus is very stable in the environment and indirect transmission can spread rapidly.  In naïve populations this can be the cause of high mortality.

Clinical symptoms include depression, vomiting and diarrhoea. Ataxia (tremors and jerky movements) may also ensue due to cerebellar hypoplasia which will be more noticeable in young cubs .

Antibody titers for FPV are highly prevalent in Serengeti populations (75%) but less so in the nearby Ngorongoro Crater population (27%).  Other locations with published results include Laka Manyara region (60%), Kruger National Park (84%), Etosha National Park (0%) and Central Kalahari Game Reserves (0%) .

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Feline Calicivirus (FCV):

Feline Calicivirus (FCV) has been well documented among domestic felines; more so than exotic felids. Nevertheless, this highly prevalent pathogen has been found to have infected wild members of the Felidae , and the nature, severity and clinical signs associated with FCV in exotic felines are similar to those reported in domestic cats .

FCV is related to upper respiratory tract diseases and can be identified by rhinitis, pneumonia, fever, lameness and oral ulcerations . The FCV strain usually causes temporary infection and appears to be harmless in most cases. However, upon recovery, the infected host may still act as an asymptomatic carrier ; potentially infecting those who are susceptible to the disease. 

Outbreaks of the virus have been reported in different lion populations residing in Africa. The prevalence rate has fluctuated in each population, with FCV being absent from the small, isolated Crater population in Ngorongoro , to occurring at low prevalence in Botswana , to being highly prevalent in the Serengeti Plains . This suggests that the FCV infection occurs in populations of high density, with outbreaks increasing as the size of the susceptible host population grows . 

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Feline Coronavirus (FCoV) :

Feline Coronavirus is an upper respiratory infection not dissimilar to FHV, which is transmitted by various routes; faecal, oral and possibly aerosolized. It can infect domestic animals such as dogs and in cats has been known to develop into the more pathogenic feline infectious peritonitis . It has also been found to be the cause of high mortality in domestic kittens.

Like many of the other epidemic diseases (such as parvovirus or calicivirus) found in serological studies of lions there have been no consistent signs of clinical disease for FCoV .

Unlike the endemic diseases, FCoV is an epidemic disease, and thus has different implications for wild lion populations. Epidemic diseases by nature briefly sweep through a population often inflicting a high mortality rate however, due to this high mortality and a lack of further susceptible hosts the initial bursts are short lived. The disease will then return through the population at a later date once there are sufficient numbers of susceptible individuals, known cases of this include coronavirus, parvovirus and calicivirus in the Serengeti lion population . FCoV has been found in varying levels of population infection throughout African lion populations .

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Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)

Feline Infectious Peritonitis is a viral disease caused by some strains of feline coronavirus (FCoV) either by mutation of the virus or by an aberration of the immune response.  Cats with weak immune systems such as young or old cats and those infected with feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) are at particular risk from developing FIP from FCoV.

An intense inflammatory reaction occurs around vessels in the tissue; often in the abdomen, kidney or brain.  The virus is unique in that antibodies actually assist the infection of white blood cells of the FIP virus.  Clinical FIP is progressive and almost always fatal. Symptoms include inappetance, weight loss, depression, anemia, fever and roughening of the fur.  Fluid may also accumulate in the abdomen causing difficulty in breathing when accumulation becomes significant.

Top 10 Diseases of Ducks

DUCKS arc waterfowl and scavengers by nature and are relatively resistant to many common diseases of birds. The large, modern, commercial duck ranch is a long step from nature, how^- ever. Confinement creates such problems as a damp, ammonia-laden atmosphere; rapid spread of some diseases that are almost unknown in wild ducks (paratyphoid, scrositis, and fowl cholera); heavy insect populations; and leg weakness. On the other side of the ledger, confinement rearing (with a controlled water supply) has all but eliminated western duck sickness (botulism), parasitism, and attack from predatory animals, which are scourges of wild ducks. The duck rancher has to provide an escape for moisture to prevent ammonia burn. To accomplish that he replaces the litter daily or provides wire floors over washable pits on at least part of the building. Other problems, such as botulism, have been solved by the use of pelleted feed and a constant water level. Flies can be controlled by modern chemicals. They must be checked before use, however, because some of the thiophosphates, w^hich are safe to use in chicken houses, are highly toxic to ducks. 
  

1-PARATYPHOID: 

PARATYPHOID or keel is an infectious disease of young ducklings (also of turkeys and other birds). It is caused chiefly by a bacterium. Salmonella iyphimurium, and to a less extent by other species of salmonellas. Mortality is usually low (less than lo percent) on Long Island, but poor incubator and brooder management increase the death rate. The name "keel," which stems from early observations that the ducks suddenly keel over when dying, is misleading. Often the ducklings become dehydrated and emaciated and die slowly. They may gasp for air or tremble, as though chilled. The common lesions are small, w^hite spots on the liver, cheesy plugs in the blind gut, and a thickening of the wall of the large gut. The best preventive measure we know of is to fumigate the eggs during early incubation and the hatching unit betw^cen hatches. Potassium permanganate and formalin are recommended. Potassium permanganate crystals should be used at the rate of one-half ounce (weighed) and i ounce of formalin (measured) to every 8o cubic feet of incuJDator or hatcher space. The potassium permanganate crystals are placed in an earthenware vessel 
with a capacity of i pint for each ounce of formalin required. The vessel is placed on the floor of the machine and the formalin poured over the crystals. The doors and vents should be closed for 15 minutes. This procedure should be followed in the incubator 3 to 5 days after each new lot of eggs is set, and in the hatcher between hatches after the hatcher has been cleaned. Fumigation should not be done while the ducklings are hatching. The farmer should not inhale the fumes and should handle the poisonous formalin carefully. Treatment consists of rigid culling and sulfonamide medication in the feed or drinking water. NF-180 can be used in the feed at the rate of 2 pounds to the ton for a week to 10 days. Sulfamethazine can be used in the drinking water at the rate of i ounce (2 tablespoons) to the gallon of drinking water for 2 days; the treatment can be repeated after 4 days, if necessary. The ducks should be kept on clean bedding, because S. typhimurium may be found in the feces of affected ducks and can be transmitted by ingestion of infected material. The bacteria can live 28 weeks in feces. Thorough cleaning and disinfecting of the brooder house after removal of an infected flock therefore is important. 

2-VIRUS HEPATITIS: 

Baby duck disease—is a highly fatal virus disease of young ducklings. It runs rapidly through a flock and kills many. The dead and dying birds are found with their heads thrown back. The disease was first discovered in white pekin ducks on Long Island in January 1950. The virus since has been isolated from wild ducks (mallards) on Long Island and from domesticated ducks in Massachusetts, western New York, Illinois, and England. Losses up to 90 percent are common and occur within 2 days of the first death. The biggest ducklings in a flock die first and without warning. Individuals are dead 30 minutes after showing the first signs. They lie on their sides with their heads thrown back. The feet may paddle as though they were swimming, and the beak often is purple. Lesions consist of small hemorrhages on the liver and mottling of the spleen and kidneys. Treatment with serum from ducks that have recovered from the disease has been used successfully. A serum bank sufficient to treat many thousands of ducklings is maintained on Long Island. The bank consists of about 2 million milliliters of blood serum collected at slaughter from ducks that had the disease and recovered. The serum is separated from the clots and treated with a preservative. The serum is then stored under refrigeration and issued, as needed, to the duck farm. Geese, muscovies, chickens, turkeys, and game birds reared in contact with infected ducks have failed to show any evidence of the disease.  
3-ASPERGILLOSIS:
Aspergillosis, a respiratory disease of young ducklings, is caused by the fungus Aspergillosis fumigatus. It is also known as brooder pneumonia and gaps. Ducklings less than 2 weeks old are most susceptible, but the fungus has been found growing in the air sacs of ducks of all ages, including breeders. Affected birds gasp for air and the head and neck are extended. Many become weak and actually may die of thirst. Cheesy nodules, from pinpoint size to one-eighth inch across, occur in the lungs and air sacs. The filamentous type of growth, similar to that seen on moldy bread, may be present in the air sacs of older ducks. Moldy litter, the most common cause of an outbreak, should never be used for young ducklings. Moldy feed should be avoided. Every efifort should be made to keep the area around the water fountains dry through the use of wire platforms and drains. Treatment of individual birds is unsatisfactory. The litter in affected pens should be removed or covered with fresh litter. 

4-INFECTIOUS SEROSITIS: 

Anatipestifer infection or ''new duck disease"—is so widespread as to be the most important disease problem of the duck industry. It is a bacterial disease caused by Moraxelia anatipestifer. The symptoms are coughing, staggering, and loss of equilibrium. Frequently the ducks lie on their sides or backs and paddle their feet. Death often is due to water starvation, rather than to the primary infection. Loose green and white droppings are common in a pen of affected ducks. Losses up to 75 percent have been recorded. The characteristic lesion consists of a cream-colored, gelatinous membrane, one-sixteenth inch or more thick, over the heart and liver. The air sacs may contain a yellow, cheesy exúdate. The liver and spleen are enlarged. Hemorrhages may be present beneath the capsule of the liver. Terramycin suspension in oil gives good control for about 5 days. The treatment consists of injecting the drug under the skin of the neck at the rate of 12.5 milligrams per pound of body weight. Treatment may have to be repeated. Sulfa drugs have been widely used, with varying results. One and one-half pounds of sulfaquinoxaline per ton of feed is the recommended level. The ducks should be starved for 4 to 6 hours and the medicated feed given for the remainder of a 24-hour period. This treatment may be repeated if necessary. 

5-FOWL CHOLERA: 

Pasteurellosis—is an infectious bacterial disease of ducks and other birds. The cause is a bacterial organism, Pasteurella multocida. Chickens, turkeys, geese, and other species are susceptible. Losses from fowl cholera are seldom seen in ducks under 4 weeks old. Affected ducks are hot to the touch, the skin is usually red, and the healthy birds in the flock frequently pick the feathers from the sick and dying birds. Swollen hockjoints may be seen in flocks following an outbreak of fowl choleraHemorrhages usually are found on the heart. Cheesy masses may be seen in the air sacs and on the heart. The liver and spleen are enlarged and mottled. Small, white spots may be found in the liver. The blood vessels of the intestines and other organs are engorged with blood. Diagnosis must be made by isolation and identification of the causative organism, since the lesions of fowl cholera and infectious serositis are easily confused. Fresh drinking water and clean quarters appear to be of some importance in the control of cholera in ducks. Bacterins consisting of either chemically killed or heat-killed liquid cultures of Pasteurella multocida have been used successfully. Two doses of i to 2 milliliters (determined by the size of the duck) of duck-origin bacterin a week apart are inoculated intramuscularly at least a week before an anticipated outbreak. The egg-embryo vaccine is more effective than broth bacterins for the control of the fowl cholera in ducks. Treatment with sulfonamides is of some value, but not all outbreaks respond to it. Terramycin oil, as given for infectious serositis, is effective for short periods. Ducks dead of cholera should be burned or buried deep, because the cholera organism can survive for long periods in carcasses.  

6-LEUCOGYTOZOON : 

Leucogytozoon infection has not been reported in the duck-growing area of Long Island, but it is a major problem in some areas of the United States where the blackfly (Simulium) is present in large numbers. The disease is caused by a protozoa, Leucotozoon simondi, which attacks the blood cells. Affected birds may exhibit thirst, become weak, and be highly excitable. Death usually occurs a few hours after symptoms are noted. The blood is thin and does not clot readily. The spleen may be swollen and dark or mottled.  
Control consists of rearing ducks in a screened area or discontinuing production during the blackfly season. No adequate treatment is available. 

7-BOTULISM: 

BOTULISM—limberneck—is poisoning caused by the toxin formed in putrefying animal and vegetable matter by the growth of bacteria known as Closiridium hotulinum. When the toxin is consumed, the ducks develop a paralysis of the neck muscles (limber neck), and the feathers become loose. Diagnosis is made by finding the toxin in the blood of sick ducks; to do that, the suspected serum is inoculated into immune and nonimmune mice. Pellet feeding, maintaining a constant water level in streams and ponds, and prompt removal of all dead animals and birds aid in the control. The treatment of the birds with antitoxin is recommended only when the individual value of the bird is high. GoGGiDiosis is a minor problem in ducks, although some outbreaks, with losses up to 24 percent, have been reported. External parasites of ducks include the duck louse {Anatoecus dentatus), which is frequently found on the heads of breeding birds on Long Island. Control consists of dusting 5-perccnt DDT under the feathers on the head of the affected ducks at the time of selecting breeders. INFLAMMATION of the eye, eyelids, and the mucous membranes of the nose and throat resulting from ammonia fumes generated in feces is common in ducks. Frequent removal of the litter and good ventilation are the best control measures. 

8-SALT POISONING: 

The toxic level for salt is 2-percent sodium chloride in the feed, 4,000 parts per million in the drinking water, or any combination. High salt levels depress growth in ducklings and lower the fertility and hatchability of eggs of breeder ducks. 

 

9-FOREIGN BODY PENETRATION: 

Ducks are known for their habit of eating shiny objects. Nails, wire, screws, and other objects that are ingested penetrate the gizzard or intestine. Special care must be exercised to remove such objects from pens or yards, especially after making repairs on buildings that house ducks. SuGH GONDITIONS as prolapse of the oviduct and paralysis of the penis occur in breeding flocks. The true cause of these conditions is unknown. Forcing the birds into production is thought to play a part. All birds thus affected should be removed from the breeding flock immediately, so as to prevent the development of cannibalism. Ducks that have a tendency to prolapse of the oviduct or paralysis of the penis should not be used in a breeding flock, even if they recover. Impaction of the oviduct may occur as the result of infection or other unknown causes, which prevent the movement of partly or fully formed eggs down the oviduct. Internal layers are found occasionally in laying ducks. Reversed peristalsis in the oviduct deposits the fully formed eggs in the abdominal cavity.

10-Ascites: 

Ascites or water belly, is a common condition in ducks. The accumulation of fluids in the abdominal cavity is usually the result of interference with the circulation of blood through the liver. The incidence of tumors in domestic ducks is extremely low. Tumors of the liver, lungs, kidneys, and oviduct have been reported in ducks.

Fish diseases and human health

Infections or infestations of animals that can be transmitted to humans are called zoonoses. Although cases of human disease arising from fish and shellfish are rare in Australia, there are a few ‘fish diseases’ that workers in the aquaculture and fishing industries need to be conscious of when handling or processing fish. 

Mycobacteriosis and nocardiosis:    

Mycobacteriosis and nocardiosis are bacterial diseases that affect a wide range of freshwater and marine fish, but particularly aquarium fish. The bacteria cause chronic systemic infections that form lesions internally and externally. 

Affected aquarium fish show several symptoms such as anorexia, ‘popeye’, skin discolouration and external lesions such as ulcers, nodules and ‘fin rot’. Cold water salmonids may show no external signs of disease other than mortality, but post-mortem examination may reveal greyish-white lesions in the kidney, liver and spleen.

There is some debate as to whether infected fish can be successfully treated for these bacterial diseases. The destruction of infected stock and comprehensive disinfection of premises is usually recommended. 

 Symptoms in humans and treatment: 

Several species of these bacteria are capable of infecting humans. The bacteria enters through abrasions which can happen in swimming pools, working with tropical fish aquaria or from handling the guts of infected fish.  Skin granulomas of the elbow, knees, fingers and feet may result.

A doctor should be consulted as soon as possible. The condition may persist for some time and must be treated with antibiotics for an extended period.

Three to four weeks after the bacteria enters the skin, a swelling develops over a bony lump or the site of an abrasion. A cyst, or abscess, develops that may be filled with pus and may ulcerate and scar.  Lymph nodes may also swell.

 Preventing infection: 

Wear protective gloves when cleaning fish aquaria or diving.  If you suspect fish may be infected make sure you wear protective gloves when cleaning and filleting fish and disinfect the equipment you use afterwards. 

 Anisakis worms in the viscera of a blue mackerel 

Anisakis nematodes:  

Anisakis and anisakis-like parasites are common nematode worms, the larvae of which infect many species of locally-caught fish. The parasite is transmitted by a fish eating crustacean zooplankton that is the intermediate host of the parasite, or by preying on a fish that are already infected.  
These parasites have a complicated lifecycle with many intermediate hosts and may be transmitted several times from fish to fish before the final host is reached. The final hosts are marine mammals such as dolphins, whales and seals, where the adult worms cause serious inflammation of the stomach wall.

Anisakis larvae are 10 - 50 mm in length, white and normally tightly-curled in a cyst in the guts and muscle of the fish. Anisakiasis in humans can be acquired by eating raw or partially-cooked marine fish. The Anisakis larvae cause inflammation to the stomach wall. Some people can also develop an allergy to Anisakis larvae in seafood, even when properly cooked. 

Symptoms in humans and treatment:

Anisakis can cause severe gastric and intestinal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea. In some severe cases there may be fever and blood in the stools. Anisakiasis is often misdiagnosed as stomach ulcers or appendicitis. Acute allergic reactions may occur with or without the gastric symptoms. Consult a  doctor as soon as possible.

Preventing infection in humans:  

Avoid eating raw fish dishes. When cooking fish, cook for a minimum of five minutes at 60 degrees Celsius or a shorter time at higher temperatures.

If fish is to be eaten raw, it should preferably be frozen at -30 degrees Celsius. If storage is at -20 degrees Celsius, the fish should be frozen for at least five days. It is preferable to use farmed fish for raw dishes as these fish appear to be virtually free of infection. Marinating or smoking the fish will not necessarily kill Anisakis. 

Crayfish handler’s disease (‘seal finger’): 

The condition known as ‘crayfish handler’s disease’ is well known in the fishing industry. It can be caused by various bacteria, but particularly Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae and various species of the Vibrio genus.

The bacteria enter the skin through abrasions, lacerations or fissures and cause a painful itching or burning sensation. 

Symptoms in humans and treatment: 

There is an itching, burning sensation at the site of the injury, followed by swelling and the adjacent joints become stiff and painful. If left untreated the injury will heal in three weeks, although a relapse at a later date is possible.

There may be lymph node enlargement and inflammation but this is rare. Consult a doctor as soon as possible. 

Preventing infection in humans:  

Thoroughly clean all marine cuts and injuries with antiseptic and keep them dry and clean. If handling marine animals, wear thick protective gloves. Wear thick boots when wading or fishing.

Top 10 Diseases in Cats and Their Treatments

1-Cancer: 

Cancer is a class of diseases in which cells grow uncontrollably, invade surrounding tissue and may spread to other areas of the body. As with people, cats can get various kinds of cancer. The disease can be localized (confined to one area, like a tumor) or generalized (spread throughout the body). 

Causes of Cancer

Cancer is a “multifactorial” disease, which means it has no known single cause. However, we do know that both hereditary and environmental factors can lead to the development of cancer in cats. 

• Squamous cell carcinoma of the ear, eyelid or nose is a skin cancer caused by repeated exposure to the sun. White, or light colored, cats are more susceptible to squamous cell carcinoma.

• Lymphosarcoma or lymphoma (LSA), is one of the most common type of cancer in cats. Some reports estimate that 30% of all reported cat cancers are due to LSA.  Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is linked to most forms of LSA except for the gastrointestinal (GI) form. FeLV is a transmittable retrovirus that can be passed in utero as well as through saliva and direct contact. Primarily a disease in younger cats, the virus doesn’t always manifest symptoms, so it is important to have your cat tested regularly to prevent transmission and progression. There is a vaccine available for FeLV that your veterinarian can discuss with you based on your cat’s lifestyle and risk of exposure to FeLV.

It is important to take your cat to your veterinarian if any evidence of disease is noted. LSA is not curable, however, most cats respond well to treatment.

• Lumps (which are not always malignant, but are always worth having a veterinarian examine)

• Swelling

• Persistent sores or skin infections

• Abnormal discharge from any part of the body

• Bad breath

• Listlessness, lethargy or other marked change in behavior

• Weight loss

• Sudden lameness

• Diarrhea or vomiting

• Scaly and/or red skin patches

• Decreased or loss of appetite

• Difficulty breathing, urinating or defecating

• Change in behavior

• If a lump is present, the first step is typically a needle biopsy, which removes a very small tissue sample for microscopic examination of cells. Alternately, surgery may be performed to remove all or part of the lump for diagnosis by a pathologist.

• Radiographs, ultrasound, blood evaluation and other diagnostic tests may also be helpful in determining if cancer is present or if it has spread.

• Though cancer can be diagnosed in cats of all ages and breeds, it is much more common in older cats.

• Certain breeds are prone to specific cancers, but cats with white ears and heads are particularly susceptible to skin cancer.

• Keeping your cat indoors will protect her from certain skin cancers caused by repeated sun exposure and sunburn.

• Breast cancer is a common cancer for cats, but it can be avoided by having your cat spayed before her first heat cycle.

• Treatment options vary and depend on the type and stage of cancer.

• Common treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation and immunotherapy or a combination of therapies. Success of treatment depends on the form and extent of the cancer and the aggressiveness of the therapy. Of course, early detection is best.

• Some cat owners opt for no treatment of the cancer, in which case palliative care, including pain relief, should be considered.Regardless of how you proceed after a diagnosis of cancer in your pet, it is very important to consider his quality of life when making future decisions.

• Some cancers can be cured, and almost all patients can receive at least some benefit from treatment. Please note that if your cat’s cancer is not curable, there are still many things you can do to make your pet feel better. Don’t hesitate to talk to your vet about your options. And remember good nutrition and loving care can greatly enhance your cat’s quality of life.

The GI form of LSA (the most common form) can cause a large mass in the stomach or intestine or diffuse infiltration throughout the intestinal tract.

Cancer Symptoms

Symptoms of cancer in cats may include:

Diagnosing Cancer in Cats

Cats More Prone to Cancer

Ask your vet if your cat falls into specific at-risk categories.

Cancer Prevention

Cancer Treatments

Knowing When to Consult Your Vet

Contact your veterinarian immediately if your cat shows any of the clinical signs mentioned on the list above. Should your cat receive a diagnosis of cancer, you may wish to consult a veterinary oncologist, often employed by specialty veterinary practices and teaching hospitals. 

2-Diabetes:  

Diabetes in cats is a complex disease caused by either a lack of the hormone insulin or an inadequate response to insulin. After a cat eats, her digestive system breaks food into various components, including glucose—which is carried into her cells by insulin. When a cat does not produce insulin or cannot utilize it normally, her blood sugar levels elevate. The result is hyperglycemia, which, if left untreated, can cause many complicated health problems for a cat.  
It is important to understand that diabetes is considered a manageable disorder—and many diabetic cats can lead happy, healthy lives. Some may even go into remission!

Diabetes can be classified as:

• Type I (lack of insulin production)

• Type II (impaired insulin production along with an inadequate response to the hormone).

• Change in appetite (either increased or decreased)

• Weight loss

• Excessive thirst/increase in water consumption

• Increased urination

• Urinating in areas other than litter box

• Unusually sweet-smelling breath

• Lethargy

• Dehydration

• Unkempt hair coat

• Urinary tract infection

• Every diabetic cat is an individual and will respond differently to therapy. Diabetes treatment is based on how severe the signs of disease are and whether there are any other health issues that could complicate therapy.

• Some cats are seriously ill when first diagnosed and require intensive hospitalized care for several days to regulate their blood sugar levels.

• Cats who are more stable when first diagnosed may respond to oral medication or a high-fiber diet.

• For most cats, insulin injections are necessary for adequate regulation of blood glucose. Once your pet’s individual insulin treatment is established, typically based on weight, you will be shown how to give him his insulin injections at home.

• Your vet may also show you how to perform glucose tests at home. Other routine blood work may also be necessary.

Cats with type II diabetes can progress to type I diabetes. In fact, by the time most cats are diagnosed with diabetes, they are identified as having the type I disorder. These cats require insulin therapy for survival. Cats with type II disease may respond to other forms of therapy.

Diabetes Symptoms in Cats

The following are signs that your cat may be diabetic:

Causes of Diabetes

The exact cause of diabetes is unknown. Genetics, pancreatic disease, certain medications and abnormal protein deposits in the pancreas can play a role in causing this disorder.

The most important factors in the development of diabetes seem to be obesity, gender (male cats are more commonly afflicted than females) and age.

Diagnosing Diabetes

To properly diagnose diabetes, your veterinarian will collect information about clinical signs, perform a physical examination and check blood work and urinalysis.

Treating Diabetes

As your veterinarian will explain, it’s important to always give your cat insulin at the same time every day and feed her regular meals in conjunction with her medication; this allows increased nutrients in the blood to coincide with peak insulin level. This will lessen the chance that her sugar levels will swing either too high or too low. You can work with your vet to create a feeding schedule around your pet’s medication time. It is also important to avoid feeding your diabetic cat treats that are high in glucose.

Diabetes Prevention

A proper diet and regular exercise can go a long way to avoid the development of feline diabetes. Aside from other negative effects, obesity is known to contribute to insulin resistance.

If You Suspect Your Cat Has Diabetes

If your cat is showing any abnormal clinical signs as listed above, make an appointment to see your veterinarian immediately. If a diabetic cat is not treated, he can develop kidney disease, neurological disorders or other metabolic diseases. Cats with type I diabetes require insulin therapy for survival. 

3-Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV): 

Cats infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) may not show symptoms until years after the initial infection occurred. Although the virus is slow-acting, a cat’s immune system is severely weakened once the disease takes hold. This makes the cat susceptible to various secondary infections. Infected cats receiving supportive medical care and kept in a stress-free, indoor environment can live relatively comfortable lives for months to years before the disease reaches its chronic stages. 

An FIV-infected cat may not show any symptoms for years. Once symptoms do develop, however, they may continually progress—or a cat may show signs of sickness interspersed with health for years. If your cat is demonstrating any of the following symptoms, please have examined by your veterinarian:

• Enlarged lymph nodes

• Fever

• Anemia

• Weight loss

• Disheveled coat

• Poor appetite

• Diarrhea

• Abnormal appearance or inflammation of the eye (conjunctivitis)

• Inflammation of the gums (gingivitis)

• Inflammation of the mouth (stomatitis)

• Dental disease

• Skin redness or hair loss

• Wounds that don’t heal

• Sneezing

• Discharge from eyes or nose

• Frequent urination, straining to urinate or urinating outside of litter box

• Behavior change

• FIV is mainly passed from cat to cat through deep bite wounds, the kind that usually occur outdoors during aggressive fights and territorial disputes—a perfect reason to keep your cat inside.

• Another, less common mode of transmission is from an FIV-infected mother cat to her kitten. FIV does not seem to be commonly spread through sharing food bowls and litter boxes, social grooming, sneezing and other casual modes of contact.

• Although any feline is susceptible, free-roaming, outdoor intact male cats who fight most frequently contract the disease. Cats who live indoors are the least likely to be infected.

• The best way to prevent your cat from contracting the virus is to keep him indoors, avoiding any chance of contact with infected felines.

• If you walk your cat, keep him on a leash when outdoors.

• If your cat is going to be spending any time in a cattery or in a home with other felines, make sure all cats have tested negative for FIV.

• Any recently adopted cat should be tested for FIV prior to entering your home.

• You may also want to speak to your veterinarian about the FIV vaccine and if it is appropriate for your cat.

• FIV infection is routinely diagnosed by blood testing.

• The FIV status of every cat should be known.

• The most common type of test looks for the presence of antibodies to the virus in the blood. No test is 100% accurate all of the time, and your veterinarian will interpret the test result and determine whether further testing is needed to confirm either a positive or negative test result. Once a cat is determined to be FIV-positive, that cat is capable of transmitting the disease to other cats.

• Since it is possible for an infected mother cat to transfer FIV antibodies to her kittens, these kittens may test positive from their mother’s antibodies until they have cleared them from their systems, which happens by six months of age. Kittens who test positive for FIV antibodies when they’re younger than six months should undergo antibody tests again at a later date to see if they are infected.

• Medication for secondary infections

• Healthy, palatable diet to encourage good nutrition

• Fluid and electrolyte replacement therapy

• Anti-inflammatory drugs

• Immune-enhancing drugs

• Parasite control

• Keep your cat indoors. This will protect him from contact with disease-causing agents to which he may be susceptible. By bringing your cat indoors, you’re also protecting the uninfected cats in your community.

• Watch for changes—even seemingly minor—in your cat’s health and behavior. Immediately report any health concerns to your vet.

• Bring your cat to your vet at least twice per year for a wellness checkup, blood count and urine analysis.

• Feed your cat nutritionally balanced food—no raw food diets, please, as bacteria and parasites in uncooked meat and eggs can be dangerous to immunocompromised pets.

• Be sure your cat is spayed or neutered.

FIV Transmission

Please note:  FIV cannot be transmitted from cat to human, only from cat to cat.

Preventing FIV

When to Consult Your Veterinarian

If you suspect your cat has FIV, have him examined and tested by your veterinarian right away. During your visit, be ready to describe any symptoms that you have detected, no matter how minute they seem. Also make sure to keep your cat indoors, away from other felines who might possibly be infected or whom he could infect, until you have a diagnosis.

Without proper treatment, the secondary infections that can occur as a consequence of FIV can progress to life-threatening conditions. Additionally, cats with FIV can develop various forms of cancer, blood diseases or kidney failure, which will ultimately claim the cat’s life.

Diagnosing FIV

FIV Treatment

Unfortunately, there is no specific antiviral treatment for FIV. Cats can carry the virus for a long time before symptoms appear. Therefore, treatment focuses mainly on extending the asymptomatic period or, if symptoms have set in, on easing the secondary effects of the virus. Your veterinarian may prescribe some of the following treatments:

Caring for an FIV-Infected Cat. 

4-Feline Leukemia Virus (FelV): 

First discovered in the 1960s, feline leukemia virus is a transmittable RNA retrovirus that can severely inhibit a cat’s immune system. It is one of the most commonly diagnosed causes of disease and death in domestic cats. Because the virus doesn’t always manifest symptoms right away, any new cat entering a household—and any sick cat—should be tested for FeLV. 

FeLV weakens an animal’s immune system and predisposes cats to a variety of infections and diseases, including anemia, kidney disease and lymphosarcoma, a highly malignant and fatal cancer of the lymph system.

Young kittens and cats less than one year of age are most susceptible to the virus. Cats living with an infected cat,  allowed outdoors where they may be bitten by an infected cat, and kittens  born to a mother who is FeLV positive are most at risk for infection.

• The FeLV virus is shed in many bodily fluids, including saliva, nasal secretions, urine, feces and blood. 

• FeLV is most commonly transmitted through direct contact, mutual grooming and through sharing litter boxes, food and water bowls. 

• It can also be passed in utero or through mother’s milk. 

• Infected outdoor cats fighting with other cats can transmit the disease through bites and scratches. 

• Loss of appetite and weight loss

• Pale or inflamed gums

• Poor coat condition

• Abcesses

• Fever

• Upper respiratory infections

• Diarrhea and vomiting

• Seizures

• Changes in behavior

• Vision or other eye problems

• Enlarged lymph nodes

• Reproductive problems (in females)

• Jaundice

• Chronic skin disease

• Respiratory distress

• Lethargy

• There is a vaccine available for cats who are at risk of contracting FeLV. Like all vaccines, there are risks involved in vaccination, and the vaccine is not a 100% guarantee against infection. Your veterinarian can best evaluate whether this vaccine is right for your cat.

• As with any infectious disease, the best prevention is eliminating sources of exposure. Routine FeLV testing and keeping your cat indoors and away from cats whose FeLV status is not known remain the best way to prevent your cat from becoming infected.

• Most veterinarians and shelter professionals use the ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) test, which detects antigen to the FELV virus in the bloodstream.

• Other tests like the IFA (indirect fluorescent antibody) test or PCR (polymerase chain reaction) test are recommended to confirm positive ELISA test results.

• Feed your cat a nutritionally balanced diet, one free of raw meat, eggs and unpasteurized dairy products, which can harbor bacteria and parasites and lead to infection.

• Provide a quiet place for your cat to rest indoors and away from other cats who could promote disease.

• Bring your cat to the vet every six months—at the very least—for a wellness checkup and blood tests.

• During the early stages of infection, a cat may not show any clinical signs, but he can still pass the virus to other cats. It’s not advisable to introduce a new uninfected cat into the household, even one who has been properly vaccinated against FeLV. Those living in close quarters with infected cats are most at risk for infection, and should be tested for the virus and, if negative, be housed separately.

• FeLV is contagious to other cats, but not to humans or other species. Other cats in the house can acquire the virus from an infected cat. Though the virus doesn’t live long outside of the body, and is easily inactivated with common disinfectants, it can be passed through mutual grooming, shared food and water as well as common litter boxes.

• Sadly there is no cure for FeLV, and it is estimated that less than 20% of clinically infected cats survive more than three years of active infection. In the case of those cats who develop cancer, chemotherapy can help prolong life, but treatment often focuses on providing the best quality of life. 

Healthy cats over three months of age and vaccinated for FeLV are highly unlikely to contract the virus from another cat. 

Signs of FeLV

Cats can be infected and show no signs. Others may exhibit:

Preventing FelV

Diagnosing FelV

There are several types of tests available to diagnose FeLV.

Caring for a Cat with FelV 

5-Heartworm:     

Spread by infected mosquitoes, heartworm is increasingly being recognized as an underlying cause of health problems in domestic cats. Cats are an atypical host for heartworms. Despite its name, heartworm primarily causes lung disease in cats. It is an important concern for any cat owner living in areas densely populated by mosquitoes, and prevention should be discussed with a veterinarian. 

You may have thought heartworm disease only affects dogs, and it’s true that the infection is less common in cats.  

The cat is not a natural host for the heartworm parasite, Dirofilaria immitis, and so the heartworm is not likely to complete its entire life cycle. That means that fewer and smaller worms survive, and many do not reach a cat’s heart. The worms that do survive—and the resulting immune reaction that the cat’s body sets up to kill the developing worms—can cause severe health problems. 

Causes and Signs of Heartworm Disease: 

When a mosquito carrying the heartworm parasite, Dirofilaria immitis, bites a cat, larvae are transmitted into the bloodstream. The larvae migrate toward the heart over a period of around four to six months, maturing as they go, then settle in the heart, pulmonary arteries and blood vessels of the lungs. Because a domestic cat is not a natural host for the heartworm parasite, many of the worms die. These—along with the living worms—cause severe inflammatory and immune responses in an infected cat.  

Cats of all ages, living in any region, can contract heartworm, but the disease is more prevalent in felines who live in areas densely populated by mosquitoes. Outdoor cats are at greater risk because of increased exposure to mosquitoes. However, indoor cats are also susceptible to mosquito bites, so it’s smart to discuss prevention with your vet. The heartworm infection can be especially life-threatening to kittens and older cats.

The following signs may indicate that your cat has been infected:

• Persistent cough

• Breathing difficulties (panting, wheezing, rapid or open-mouthed breathing)

• Depression

• Loss of appetite

• Weight loss

• Sporadic vomiting

• Lethargy

• Sudden death

• There are several FDA-approved medications available that reliably prevent feline heartworm infection. Check with your vet and please remember, it’s recommended that cats are screened for heartworm infection with blood tests before being given any type of preventative medication. 

• It’s also a good idea to limit your cat’s exposure to mosquito-infested areas and bring her in for preventative screenings during vet visits.

• Regular checkups are key to detecting early infections and can give your cat a good chance at recovery.

Heartworm disease is not as easily diagnosed in cats as it is in dogs. 

• Routine testing requires a combination of blood tests. 

• When cats show signs of respiratory difficulty and heartworm is suspected, diagnosis is usually based on a cat’s history, physical examination, radiographs, echocardiogram and blood tests.

• Damage to walls of heart

• Damage to pulmonary blood vessels

• Possible obstruction of blood flow through pulmonary arteries

• Impaired breathing

• Heart and lung failure

• Kidney and liver damage

• Sudden death

Breathing difficulties that occur in the first stage of heartworm disease, caused by worms newly arriving in the heart and lungs, were likely previously diagnosed as feline asthma or bronchitis. However, these breathing problems are now thought to have actually been due to what is now called heartworm-associated respiratory disease (HARD).

Heartworm Prevention

 Diagnosing Heartworm Disease 

Treating Heartworm Disease

There are currently no products in the United States approved for treating feline heartworm infection. The good news is that many heartworm-infected cats are able to fight the infection themselves, and can be monitored with radiographs every few months, while waiting out the worms’ lifespan. If an infected cat shows symptoms of lung disease, the cat can be given a cortisone-like medication as needed. Medication can also be given to help control coughing and vomiting.

Although some cats are able to fight the infection on their own, the following can occur if heartworms are not monitored and treated:

6-High-Rise Syndrome: 

Many pet parents eagerly open their windows to enjoy the weather during the summer months. Unfortunately, unscreened windows pose a real danger to cats, who fall out of them so often that the veterinary profession has a name for the complaint—High-Rise Syndrome. Falls can result in shattered jaws, punctured lungs, broken limbs and pelvises—and even death. 

• Cats have excellent survival instincts, and they don’t deliberately “jump” from high places that would be dangerous. Most cats fall accidentally from high-rise windows, terraces or fire escapes.

• Cats have an incredible ability to focus their attention on whatever interests them. A bird or other animal attraction can be distracting enough to cause them to lose their balance and fall.

• Because cats have little fear of heights and enjoy perching in high places, pet owners often assume that they can take care of themselves. Although cats can cling to the bark of trees with their claws, other surfaces are much more difficult, such as window ledges, concrete or brick surfaces.

• When cats fall from high places, they don’t land squarely on their feet. Instead, they land with their feet slightly splayed apart, which can cause severe head and pelvis injuries.

• It is a misconception that cats won’t be injured if they fall from one- or two-story buildings. They may actually be at greater risk for injury when falling shorter distances than by falling from mid-range or higher altitudes. Shorter distances do not give them enough time to adjust their body posture to fall correctly.

• When cats fall from high-rise buildings, they may end up on sidewalks or streets that are dangerous and unfamiliar to them.Never assume that the animal has not survived the fall; immediately rush the animal to the nearest animal hospital or to your veterinarian.

• There is a 90% survival rate for cats who are high-rise victims if they receive immediate and proper medical attention.

• Install snug and sturdy screens in all your windows.

• If you have adjustable screens, please make sure that they are tightly wedged into window frames.

• Note that cats can slip through childproof window guards—these don’t provide adequate protection!

Preventing High-Rise Syndrome

To keep your cat safe during the summer, take the following precautions: 

• Install snug and sturdy screens in all your windows.

• If you have adjustable screens, please make sure that they are tightly wedged into window frames.

• Note that cats can slip through childproof window guards—these don’t provide adequate protection!  

7-Rabies:  

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the brain and spinal cord of all mammals, including cats, dogs and humans. This preventable disease has been reported in every state except Hawaii. There’s good reason that the very word “rabies” evokes fear in people—once symptoms appear, rabies is close to 100% fatal.

Rabies Transmission

There are several reported routes of transmission of the rabies virus.

• Rabies is most often transmitted through a bite from an infected animal.

• Less frequently, it can be passed on when the saliva of an infected animal enters another animal’s body through mucous membranes or an open, fresh wound.

• The risk for contracting rabies runs highest if your cat is exposed to wild animals. Outbreaks can occur in populations of wild animals (most often raccoons, bats, skunks and foxes in this country) or in areas where there are significant numbers of unvaccinated, free-roaming dogs and cats.

• In the United States, rabies is reported in cats more than in any other domestic species.

• Unvaccinated cats who are allowed to roam outdoors are at the highest risk for rabies infection.

• Feral cat populations remain a reservoir host for the rabies virus.

• Vaccination is the key—and in many areas of the country, such as New York City, it's the law.

• Some local ordinances require lengthy quarantines—or euthanasia—of pets who have bitten someone if their owners do not have proof of current vaccination.

• Vaccinating your cat doesn't just protect her from rabies—it also protects your cat if she bites someone.

• In municipalities where rabies vaccinations for cats are not required, the decision to vaccinate is best left to the judgment of the veterinarian and the cat guardian because some cats experience serious side effects to the rabies vaccine.

• The vaccine should definitely be administered if your cat spends any time outdoors (ASPCA experts recommend keeping pet cats indoors).

• Animals will not show signs immediately following exposure to a rabid animal. Symptoms can be varied and can take months to develop. Classic signs of rabies in cats include:

• Changes in behavior (including aggression, restlessness and lethargy),

• Increased vocalization

• Loss of appetite

• Weakness

• Disorientation

• Paralysis

• Seizures

• Sudden death

• There is no accurate test to diagnose rabies in live animals.

• The direct fluorescent antibody test is the most accurate test for diagnosis, but it can only be performed after the death of the animal.

• The rabies virus can incubate in a cat’s body anywhere from just one week to more than a year before the virus appears in the saliva and the cat is capable of transmitting the disease.

• When the animal becomes infectious, symptoms appear quickly.  It is possible for a cat, or dog, to shed the virus for several days before clinical signs appear.

• There is no treatment or cure for rabies once symptoms appear. The disease results in fatality.

• Put gloves on to protect yourself from infection.

• Call your veterinarian for an immediate appointment!

• Contact local animal control officers if the animal who bit your pet is still at large; they will be best able to safely apprehend and remove the animal from the environment.

• A cat who is up to date with his vaccinations and who has been bitten by a possibly rabid animal should also be given a rabies booster vaccine immediately and kept under observation for 45 days.

• If you think you’ve been bitten by a rabid animal, see your doctor immediately!

Rabies Prevention

Symptoms of Rabies

Diagnosing Rabies

What to Do if Your Cat Interacts With a Rabid Animal

Note: Do not attempt to handle or capture a wild animal who is acting strangely (i.e., a nocturnal animal who is out during the day, an animal who acts unusually tame). Report the animal to local animal control officers as soon as possible. 

8-Ringworm:  

Although the name suggests otherwise, ringworm isn’t caused by a worm at all—but a fungus that can infect the skin, hair and nails. Not uncommon in cats, this highly contagious disease can lead to patchy, circular areas of hair loss with central red rings. Also known as dermatophytosis, ringworm often spreads to other pets in the household—and to humans, too. 

Ringworm Symptoms

Classic symptoms of ringworm in cats include:

• Skin lesions that typically appear on the head, ears and forelimbs.

• Ringworm can cause flaky bald patches that sometimes look red in the center.

• In mild cases, there may be localized areas of redness or simply dandruff, while more severe infections can spread over a cat’s entire body.

• It’s also possible for a pet to carry ringworm spores and not show any symptoms whatsoever.

• Any cat can develop ringworm, but kittens less than a year old and geriatric cats are most prone to infection.

• Long-haired cats and those who are immunocompromised are also more susceptible.

• Ringworm can quickly spread in shelters or other crowded environments.

• Warm and humid conditions tend to promote ringworm infections.

• Since some cats show few or no symptoms, a diagnosis of ringworm is rarely made just by looking at the skin.

• A veterinarian may use an ultraviolet light to diagnose ringworm, or may examine a fungal culture taken from a cat’s hair or skin cells.

• Skin biopsy and microscopic exam are sometimes also performed.

• A veterinarian may prescribe a shampoo or ointment that contains a special medication to kill the fungus.

• In some cases, oral medications are necessary.

• To ensure that you’ve eradicated this resistant and hardy fungus, treatment may have to be given for several months or more and fungal cultures rechecked periodically.

• It’s also important to treat the cat’s environment to prevent infection from recurring.

• Bathe all pets in the household with a medicated rinse or shampoo.

• Wash the infected animals’ bedding and toys with a disinfectant that kills ringworm spores.

• Discard items that are impossible to thoroughly disinfect (carpeted cat trees, etc.)

• Frequently vacuum to rid the house of infected hairs and skin cells. (Yes, the fungus can survive on hair and skin that your cat sheds!)

• Thoroughly wash your hands after you bathe or touch your cat.

Ringworm Transmission

A cat can get ringworm directly through contact with an infected animal—or indirectly through contact with bedding, dishes and other materials that have been contaminated with the skin cells or hairs of infected animals. Ringworm spores are notoriously hardy and can survive in the environment for more than a year!

Diagnosing Ringworm

Because infection can potentially spread over a cat’s body, it is important that you see your vet for an accurate diagnosis if you suspect your pet has ringworm. And because the infection can easily spread to you and other animals in the household, it’s a smart idea to immediately quarantine your cat until a veterinarian can confirm a diagnosis. You should also thoroughly wash your hands after you touch your cat.

Treating Ringworm

Treatment of ringworm depends on the severity of the infection.

If your veterinarian has diagnosed your cat with ringworm, he or she will explain what you must do to prevent the fungus from spreading to your other pets—and to the human members of the household. But keep in mind that if you have other pets, it’s likely that most of them have been exposed as well. Your veterinarian may recommend that you do the following:

If a cat with ringworm is not properly treated, the lesions can spread over large areas of the animal’s body, causing hair loss and skin infections. 

  

9-Upper Respiratory Infections:  

A cat’s upper respiratory tract—the nose, throat and sinus area—is susceptible to infections caused by a variety of viruses and bacteria. 

Causes of Upper Respiratory Infections

• Viruses are the most common causes of upper respiratory infections (URIs) in cats.

• Feline calicivirus and feline herpesvirus account for 80 to 90% of all contagious upper respiratory problems, and are prevalent in shelters, catteries and multi-cat households.

• These viruses can be transmitted from cat to cat through sneezing, coughing, or while grooming or sharing food and water bowls.

• Once infected, cats can become carriers for life, and though they may not show clinical signs, they can still transmit the viruses to others.

• Cats often develop bacterial infections secondary to these common viral infections.

• There are also upper respiratory infections in cats that are primarily caused by bacteria. Chlamydia and Bordetella—commonly found in shelters and areas with multiple cats—are two such bacterial infections.

• Less common in cats than dogs, Bordetella is usually associated with stress and overcrowded living conditions.

• Keep your cat indoors to minimize the risk of exposure to infected animals.

• Properly isolate infected cats to protect other pets living in the same environment.

• Minimize stress.

• Keep your cat up to date on vaccines as recommended by your vet. Vaccines for upper respiratory disease in cats may not actually prevent infection, but they help lessen the severity of the disease in some cases.

• Regular veterinary exams and preventative care can help catch and treat problems early. A cat’s best defense against upper respiratory infection is a healthy immune system.

• Practice good hygiene and wash your hands thoroughly when handling multiple cats.

• Sneezing

• Congestion

• Runny nose

• Cough

• Clear to colored nasal discharge

• Gagging, drooling

• Fever

• Loss of or decreased appetite

• Rapid breathing

• Nasal and oral ulcers

• Squinting or rubbing eyes

• Open-mouth breathing

• Depression

• Age, vaccination status and physical condition all play a role in a cat’s susceptibility to upper respiratory infections.

• Cats who live in multi-cat households or shelters are most susceptible.

• Veterinarians have found that stress plays a role in causing outbreaks of URI, and cats in any shelter, cattery or boarding facility are generally experiencing high levels of stress.

• Cats who have recovered from URI can become carriers, and may experience recurrences when stressed.

• Certain breeds like Persians and other flat-faced breeds have a predisposition to develop upper respiratory infections due to their facial structure.

• Medications

• Isolation

• Rest

• Support with fluids

• Nutritional support

Preventing Upper Respiratory Infections

Symptoms of Upper Respiratory Infections

Symptoms differ depending on the cause and location of the infection, but some common clinical signs of upper respiratory problems in cats include:

Diagnosing Upper Respiratory Infections

It’s important to bring your cat to a veterinarian if you think she may be suffering from an upper respiratory infection. A brief exam by a veterinarian will help to determine if your cat requires medication, has a fever or is dehydrated. Avoid self-diagnosis, since your cat may be infectious and require isolation, antibiotics or additional veterinary care.

Treating Upper Respiratory Infections

Your veterinarian will prescribe the best course of treatment for your cat, which may include:

Left untreated, some upper respiratory infections can progress to pneumonia or have other serious complications, such as blindness or chronic breathing difficulties.

10-Worms: 

Cats can acquire a variety of intestinal parasites, including some that are commonly referred to as “worms.” Infestations of intestinal worms can cause a variety of symptoms. Sometimes cats demonstrate few to no outward signs of infection, and the infestation can go undetected despite being a potentially serious health problem. Some feline parasitic worms are hazards for human health as well. 

Common Types of Worms in Cats

Outdoor cats and those who are routinely exposed to soil where other animals defecate are prone to worms. Kittens and cats who do not receive regular preventative health care are most at risk for developing complications associated with internal parasites.

• Roundworms are the most common internal parasites in cats. Resembling spaghetti, adult worms are three to four inches long. There are several ways cats can become infected. Nursing kittens can get roundworms from an infected mother’s milk, while adult cats can acquire them by ingesting eggs from the feces of an infected cat.

• Hookworms are much smaller than roundworms—less than an inch long—and reside primarily in the small intestine. Because they feed on an animal’s blood, hookworms can cause life-threatening anemia, especially in kittens. Hookworm eggs are passed in the stool and hatch into larvae, and a cat can become infected either through ingestion or skin contact.  

• Tapeworms are long, flat, segmented parasites that range from 4 to 28 inches in length. An infestation can cause vomiting or weight loss. Cats acquire tapeworms by ingesting an intermediate host, like an infected flea or rodent. When cats are infected, tapeworm segments—actual pieces of the worm that resemble grains of rice—can often be seen on the fur around a cat’s hind end.

• Lungworms reside in the lungs of a cat. Most cats will not show any signs of having lungworms, but some can develop a cough. Snails and slugs are popular intermediate hosts of this type of parasite, but cats are usually infected after eating a bird or rodent who has ingested an intermediate host.

• Though means of transmission can vary, one of the main ways that cats get worms is through the ingestion of the feces of infected felines. Mother cats can also pass on worms to their kittens.

• Keep your cat indoors to avoid exposure to infected cats, rodents, fleas and feces.

• Make sure your home, yard and pets are flea-free.

• Practice good hygiene and wear gloves when changing cat litter or handling feces. It’s also important to frequently dispose of stool.

• Ask your veterinarian to recommend an appropriate internal parasite treatment or prevention program for your cat.

• Diarrhea

• Worms visible in stool or segments of worm seen near anus

• Bloody stool

• Bloating or round, potbellied appearance to abdomen

• Weight loss

• Vomiting

• Constipation

• Anemia

• Coughing

• Trouble breathing

• Not all dewormers eradicate all types of worms.  Your veterinarian will determine the type of worm(s) infestation(s) your cat has, and prescribe the best course of treatment.  Your veterinarian will also be able to tell you if the dewormer should be repeated, and when.

• Not all dog medications are safe for cats.

• Some over-the-counter deworming medications can be harmful if used inappropriately.

Worm Prevention

Symptoms of Worms in Cats

Symptoms differ depending on the type of parasite and the location of infection, but some common clinical signs include:

If you think your cat may have worms, it’s important to bring her to a veterinarian, who can confirm the presence of worms. Avoid self-diagnosis, since worms are not always visible or identifiable.

Treatment for Worms

Please don’t attempt to treat your pet yourself—your cat should be treated for the specific type of worms he has.

Transmission of Worms from Cats to Humans

A large number of roundworm eggs can accumulate where cats defecate. People, especially children, who ingest such eggs can develop serious health problems, such as blindness, encephalitis and other organ damage. Treatment of blindness caused by roundworm may involve surgical removal.

Hookworm larvae can penetrate human skin and cause lesions. People can acquire tapeworms through the ingestion of an infected flea, although this is rare.