Bovine Respiratory Disease in Cattles

Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting the North American beef cattle industry. In the broadest sense, BRD refers to any disease of the upper or lower respiratory tracts. BRD is commonly associated with infections of the lungs causing pneumonia in calves that have recently been weaned or recently arrived at the feedlot (which is why it is often referred to as shipping fever). BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival to the feedlot, but it can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture. 

• Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting the North American beef cattle industry

• It is often referred to as shipping fever

• BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival to the feedlot, but it can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture

• Classical clinical signs of bacterial BRD include:

• fever of over 40°C (>104°F)

• difficulty breathing

• nasal discharge

• varying degrees of depression

• diminished or no appetite (‘off-feed’)

• rapid, shallow breathing

• coughing

• Risk factors

• Environmental factors such as transport, adverse weather, co-mingling, stressful events (ie. dehorning, castration, weaning, auction)

• Prevention

• Precondition calves before marketing

• After arrival at the feedlot, provide a vaccination and general good animal husbandry

• Treatment

• It is best to work with your veterinarian for the appropriate medication and dosage

• Common causes of treatment failure include;

• Pathology of the lesion too far advanced

• Wrong diagnosis

• Simultaneous disease process (e.g.: Overt IBR, Post calving metritis)

• Inadequate dosage

• Overuse or inappropriate use of Ancillary Pharmaceutics  
•  
• Causes: 

BRD is a complex multi-factorial disease, which means that a number of factors must interact to cause the disease. For example, researchers can recover the bacteria and viruses responsible for BRD from the nasal passages of healthy cattle. However, other factors such as the stress from transport, mixing, and weather are needed in order for BRD to develop. There are 3 main categories of factors associated with all diseases, and BRD in particular: 

• Host factors, which refers to the characteristics of an animal that make it more prone to the disease, such as: age, immune status, prior exposure to the pathogens, genetics, etc. environmental factors such as transport, commingling, temperature fluctuations, crowding, ventilation, auction-sourced, etc.  
  Infectious agents or pathogens that are necessary for causing the disease. These can broadly be categorized as viruses, bacteria and parasites: Viruses, including: bovine herpes virus (IBR); bovine parainfluenza virus (PI-3); bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV); bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVD), and bovine coronavirus (BCV). 
  • Bacteria, including Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni and Mycoplasma spp. 
  • Parasites, including lungworm 

• BRD is a complex multi-factorial disease, which means that a number of factors must interact to cause the disease. For example, researchers can recover the bacteria and viruses responsible for BRD from the nasal passages of healthy cattle. However, other factors such as the stress from transport, mixing, and weather are needed in order for BRD to develop. There are 3 main categories of factors associated with all diseases, and BRD in particular

5 diseases that transfer to human from animals

1. Cat scratch disease (CSD):  

Humans can contract this bacterial infection when an infected cat scratches or bites them. A cat can also transfer the disease if it licks an open wound on a human body.

The disease is caused by a bacterium called Bartonella henselae.

Symptoms of CSD, which include fatigue, headaches, swollen lymph nodes, may only appear 14 days after the initial infection and may result in brain disease or inflammation of the optic nerve. 

2. Listeriosis: 

he disease, which recently led to the death of a pregnant South African woman, is mostly contracted through the ingestion of contaminated food. 

The bacterium, Listeria monocytogenes, is occurs in poultry and cattle and can be passed to humans through the ingestion of the meat of an infected animal, or dairy products made from the milk of infected cattle.

Symptoms of the disease range from headaches to confusion and seizures. Listeriosis can be fatal in some cases. 

3.Rabies: 

Perhaps the most commonly known zoonotic disease, rabies causes more than 59 000 worldwide deaths annually. According to the South African National Travel Health Network (SaNTHNet), 95% of deaths as a result of rabies occur in Africa and Asia. 

Rabies can be transferred to humans through the bite of an infected animal. In South Africa, many reported cases are a result of dog bites.

Fever, intolerance of bright light, hyperactivity as well as fear of water are some of the symptoms of rabies.

Paralytic rabies, which accounts for 30% of human rabies cases, can result in gradual paralysis and eventually death. 

4.Query Fever: 

Also called Q fever, this bacterial infection can be passed from animals to humans by simply breathing in dust that has been exposed to the faeces, urine or milk of an infected animal.

Likely to be found in goats, sheep and cattle, severe infection can lead to pneumonia and hepatitis.

Infected humans will experience fever, night sweats or chills, stomach pains, nausea and vomiting. 

5.Plague: 

With most cases of the plague occurring in Africa, this zoonotic disease can be fatal if left untreated.

Often passed to humans through the bite of an infected rodent or fleas, symptoms of the plague begin to show within six days of the onset of infection. Infected people will experience chills, chest pain, body aches as well as a sudden fever. 

If left untreated, the bacteria could enter the bloodstream and cause septicemic plague. The bacteria can also enter the lungs and result in pneumonic plague – which is fatal if not treated early. 

FOX-FORDYCE DISEASE

FOX-FORDYCE DISEASE  

What are the aims of this leaflet?   

This leaflet has been written to help you understand Fox-Fordyce disease. It explains what Fox-Fordyce disease is and why it occurs. This leaflet also details what treatments are available, and where you can get more information.  

What is Fox-Fordyce disease? 

Fox-Fordyce disease is a rare skin disorder affecting the apocrine sweat glands. These are special sweat glands found in the armpits, genital region and breasts that produce a more dense secretion than the normal or ‘eccrine’ sweat glands found elsewhere on the body. Patients with this condition experience itchy bumps on the skin around the hair follicles. 

 What causes Fox-Fordyce disease?  

The disease is believed to be caused by blockage of the apocrine sweat glands. It is not yet known why these glands become blocked. Fox-Fordyce disease commonly occurs under conditions of excess heat, humidity and stress. It can develop in anyone at any age, but most commonly arises in women of child-bearing age. Hormones are therefore believed to play a role, but the exact link has not yet been discovered.  

Is Fox-Fordyce disease hereditary? 

 No, Fox-Fordyce disease is not hereditary.

 What are the symptoms of Fox-Fordyce disease? 

The rash can be very itchy, especially when patients are experiencing high levels of stress or emotion. It is also worsened by heat and friction, and may become troublesome at night.  

What does Fox-Fordyce disease look like? 

Fox-Fordyce disease usually appears as small fluid-filled blisters, skincoloured spots or darkened spots at the base of the hair follicles. 

How is Fox-Fordyce disease diagnosed? 

The diagnosis is normally made “clinically,” from a patient’s history and by examining the appearance of the rash. Occasionally a skin biopsy may be performed to rule out other diseases. A skin biopsy is when a small sample of skin is removed and examined under a microscope.

 Can Fox-Fordyce disease be cured? 

There is no simple cure for Fox-Fordyce disease. In some people, it improves on its own. In the meantime, the symptoms can be controlled to varying extents with treatments.  

How can Fox-Fordyce disease be treated? 

To date large treatment trials have not been carried out. However, available treatment recommendations come from case reports in the research literature and so the advice is limited by the lack of evidence. Treatment is therefore difficult as no single treatment has been shown to be very effective. Topical Therapies (treatment applied to the skin): There are a number of topical therapies. Gels and lotions are better than the more greasy creams and ointments.  

 Topical steroid creams can relieve the itching. However, strong steroids should not be used continuously as they may cause thinning of the skin. Steroids have been injected into problematic areas with some success but again there is a risk of causing skin thinning. 

 Topical calcineurin inhibitors (e.g. tacrolimus or pemecrolimus) can also be used to calm itching and do not cause skin thinning, but can cause a burning sensation. 

 Topical retinoids such as tretinoin or adapalene may be used to try and reduce the rash, but can cause further skin irritation. 

 Topical antibiotics such as clindamycin have also been used successfully.   

 Phototherapy, using an ultraviolet light may be used, but careful consideration is needed as light treatment carries an increased risk of developing skin cancer, particularly with long term use. Oral  

 

Treatments (those taken by mouth):  

 

 Antihistamine tablets can be used to control the itching, especially if it is interrupting sleep. Antihistamines are normally well tolerated with few side effects, but may cause drowsiness.  

 The estrogen based oral contraceptive pill has been effective in women with Fox-Fordyce disease by altering hormone levels but when treatment is stopped, the rash is likely to recur.  

 Oral isotretinoin (also known as Roaccutane) is a drug that can improve symptoms whilst it is being taken. This drug can cause side effects including birth abnormalities. It is used with caution in women of child-bearing age: a pregnancy prevention programme needs to be followed during treatment and for 1 month after stopping the medication.  

Surgical Options:  

Surgery using a laser may be helpful to remove the affected areas and therefore attempt a cure or the area may be cut away, but is likely to lead to scarring.

Animal Disease control and treatment

		1-Foreword
		2-Disease causes and symptoms
		3-Disease of Ruminants
		4-Diseases of pigs
		5-Diseases of chickens
		6-Diseases transmissible to people

 

Diseases of ruminants:

Foot-and-mouth disease

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute and highly contagious viral disease which affects all animals with hooves (such as cattle, water buffalo, goats and pigs). All ages are affected. 

Foot-and-mouth disease Symptoms

· Blister-like sores and ulcers on the feet, mouth, muzzle, udder and teats.

· High fever.

· Refusal to eat.

· Heavy salivation.

· Hooves sometimes fall off.

· Lameness.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Refer to booklet on Herbal medicine for animals. Herbal medical relieves only the symptoms of FMD.

· Western medicine. Treat the animal with any of the following:

— Alum (locally known as tawas) and gentian violet.

Dissolve alum in I glass of gentian violet. Use cotton to apply the solution to blisters 2-3 times a day. This will quickly dry up blisters.

— Formalin and gentian violet. Mix 1 glass of formalin with 1 glass of gentian violet. Apply the solution to the blisters 2-3 times a day. This will also dry up blisters.

— Antibiotics. Inject antibiotics like penicillinstreptomycin into the muscles of the hip or neck to fight complications. Repeat the injection for 34 days.

— Vitamins. Inject Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) into the muscles of the hip or neck to speed up wound healing.

Prevention

Regularly vaccinate animals against FMD.

· Isolate infected animals.

· Do not slaughter or sell infected animals. Destroy and bury them.

· Quarantine infected areas.

· Report FMD to the nearest office of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Hemorrhagic septicemia

Hemorrhagic septicemia is an acute infectious characterized by pneumonia. It occurs after a long, dry period and at the onset of rainy reason.

Symptoms

· Swelling of the neck.

· Difficultly in breathing. In the last stage of the disease, the animal's tongue sticks out because of breathing difficulty.

· High fever.

· Loss of appetite.

· Nasal discharge.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Boil tamarind or camphor leaves. (See booklet on Herbal medicine for animals.)

· Western medicine. Inject the following drugs:

— Ecolmin. This will loosen mucus in the respiratory tract. Site of injection: Muscle of hip or neck. Repeat the injection for 2-3 days.

— Antibiotic. Inject antibiotics like penicillin-streptomycin or trimethoprim-sulfa into the muscles of the hip or neck. Repeat the injection for 3-4 days.

Prevention

· Vaccinate animals against hemorrhagic septicemia. (Refer to vaccination.)

· Avoid stress to animals.

· Keep animals and shed clean and dry.

· Bury dead animals.

Tetanus

Tetanus is an acute, highly infectious, non-contagious disease. It is manifested by contractions the muscles. It affects humans, swine and ruminants. The bacteria gain ertrance through deep wounds that heal quickly on the outside.

Symptoms

Early stage

· Stiffness of the jaw (lockjaw).

· Erect ears.

· Extended tail.

Acute stage

· Protruded third eyelid (white to pinkish membrane found at the inner corner of the eye).

· Inability to swallow food and water.

Treatment

Inject the following drugs into the muscles:

· Tetanus antitoxin. Dosage: 10,000-50,000 International Units (IU) for cattle and buffaloes; 3,000-15,000 IU for goats and pigs

The exact amount will depend on:

—Degree of tissue damage.

—Amount of wound contamination.

—Time passed since injury.

· Acepromazine. This will lessen pain or excitement of the affected animal.

· Penicillin-streptomycin. Dosage: 5-15 cc per animal. Inject into the muscle of hip or neck. Repeat injection after 24 hours.

Prevention

· Regularly trim hooves. (See section on hoof trimming in Restraining animals and simple treatments.)

· Thoroughly clean all wounds as soon as they occur.

· Instruments for castration should be properly cleaned and disinfected. (See section on Restraining animals and simple treatments.)

· Inject tetanus antitoxin at a dose of 1,500 IU to protect the animal from tetanus for at least 10 days after the wound occurs.

Husbandry measures

· Put the animal in a quiet, dark place.

· When infection is found, the wound should be reopened and thoroughly cleaned.

Foot rot

Foot rot is a major cause of lameness in ruminants of all ages.

The bacteria multiply in wounds in the skin between hoof sections. 

Foot rot

Prolonged standing in mud, water, manure or urine can lead to foot rot. The bacteria enter cracks in the skin, causing painful swelling on the affected foot. The flesh dies and rots, causing a foul smell.

Symptoms

· Lameness.

· Hoof smells bad.

· Pus in the inflamed foot.

· Swelling.

Warning: If you see sores in the mouth of ruminants with foot rot, the problem may be FMD.

Treatment

· Wash the foot with lukewarm water and soap. Remove dirt or manure in the affected area.

· Apply or spray fly repellent like Gusanex or Negasunt, 2-3 times a day until the infected area is cured.

· Inject an antibiotic preparation such as penicillinstreptomycin. Inject into the muscle of hip or neck. If symptoms remain after 2-3 days, repeat the injection.

Prevention

· Provide salt in diet.

· Keep animals in a dry place.

· Regularly trim the hooves.

· Clear the pasture area of sharp objects such as glass, wire or sharp stones.

Tick infestation

Ticks are external parasites, dark in color and two or three centimeters in size when full of blood. They get on the livestock by climbing up on bushes and weeds and waiting for an animal to brush against them. They attach themselves to the skin of animals and suck their blood. Ticks can transmit serious diseases like tick fever.

Direct damage

· Hundreds or thousands of ticks infesting an animal can result in anemia, low milk production, weight loss and even death.

· Some species of ticks can cause tick paralysis.

· Ticks damage the animal's hide. A damaged hide reduces the market value of the animal.

Symptoms

· The animal scratches.

· The animal's hide has red patches (tick-bite marks noticeable in white-colored cattle and buffaloes).

· The animals show discomfort.

· A large number of ticks may be found in less hairy areas.

Humans can be infected with ticks while handling infested animals.

After sucking the blood, an adult female tick falls from the animal. It lays eggs on the ground, in sheltered places, under stones and in cracks in walls. After this, the tick dies.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Leaves of Gliricidia or Premna (Refer to section on Herbal medicine for animals).

· Dissolve 1 tsp of either Asuntol or Neguvon in 1 gallon of water. Use the solution to bathe the animal. Thoroughly rinse after 10 minutes

Warning: Do not allow the animal to lick the solution; it is toxic.

Prevention

· Regularly bathe the animal.

· Give salt to the animal.

· If your farm is near the sea, bathe your animal in the sea at least once a month.

Lice infestation 

Lice infestation in ruminants is the result of bad sanitation.

Symptoms

· Itchiness.

· Animals scratch or rub their bodies against trees, posts or their pens.

· Lice eggs concentrate at the tip of the tail, hair inside the ears, hair around the eyes and at the neck.

Treatment

· Herbal medicine. Leaves of Gliricidia or Premna (See Herbal medicine for animals.)

· Western medicine. Dissolve 1 tsp of Asuntol or Neguvon in I gallon of water. Bathe the animal with the solution. After 10 minutes, rinse the Knin al thoroughly.

Warning: Asuntol and Neguvon are toxic. They can cause poisoning and death to animals and humans.

Prevention

· Wash your animals regularly.

· If the place is near the sea, bathe the animals in the sea once a month for half an hour or so.

· Shave water buffaloes, especially during summer.

· Allow animals, particularly water buffaloes, to wallow in mud. Dried mud on the animal's skin stops parasites like ticks and lice from biting. 

Tapeworm infestation

Tapeworms are long, flat worms that live in the intestines of ruminants, robbing them of nutrients.

Diseases in Reptiles & Amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians make excellent pets, but just like all animals, they can be at risk for some common diseases and illnesses. Before you purchase a reptile or an amphibian as a pet for the family or your children, it is important to understand what types of diseases these animals can be prone to and how to avoid them.

Here are some of the most common diseases among reptiles and amphibians, so that your pets can have long, enjoyable lives while living under your care. 

1-Iridovirus:

Iridoviruses are non-enveloped DNA viruses that can affect amphibians, reptiles, insects, and fish. This type of virus can cause necrosis of tissues in the kidney, liver, and spleen. It can also cause anemia if the virus attacks the pet’s red blood cells. 

2-Herpesvirus: 

Herpesvirus is a large, enveloped DNA virus that has been shown to affect many reptile species, including lizards, snakes, and alligators. The most common signs of this virus include weakness, loss of appetite, regurgitation, nasal discharge, oral plaques, and swollen eyelids. If the virus isn’t treated, it can result in pneumonia and neurological problems.

3-Poxvirus: 

Poxvirus is an enveloped DNA virus that has been linked to lizards, tortoises, and crocodiles. The signs of this virus will include skin lesions scattered all over the body although they are most commonly found on the head. 

4-Adenovirus:

Adenovirus is a medium-sized, non-enveloped DNA virus that is most commonly found in bearded dragons and king snakes. This virus causes lesions on the liver and the intestines and if left untreated, it can cause neurological diseases. The most common signs include weight loss, loss of appetite, and elevated liver enzymes. When a reptile is diagnosed with adenovirus, the prognosis is usually negative. 

5-Ranavirus: 

Ranavirus is similar to iridovirus, but it is most commonly found in box turtles, flat-tail geckos, and green tree pythons. This virus causes lesions to form in the mouth, on the tongue, and in the liver. It can also cause ulceration of the nasal mucosa and liver necrosis, especially in pythons. 

6-Reovirus: 

Reovirus is a non-enveloped RNA virus found in several species of lizard, snake, and tortoise. This disease causes lesions similar to those seen in herpesviral, iridoviral, and picornaviral diseases so it can be difficult for a veterinarian to diagnose. 

7-Flavivirus: 

Flavivirus is a single-stranded RNA virus and it usually transmitted to reptiles and amphibians through the consumption of infected insects. West Nile virus is one of the most common flaviviruses to affect reptiles and it can cause encephalitis, stomatitis, liver disease, and death.